Classification of mental disorder

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Main article: Mental disorders

The classification of mental disorder is a key aspect of psychiatry and other mental health professions and an important issue for users and providers of mental health services. There are currently two widely established systems for classifying mental illness - Chapter V of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) produced by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Both list categories of disorders thought to be distinct types, and have deliberately converged their codes in recent revisions so that the manuals are often broadly comparable, although significant differences remain.[1] Other classification schemes may be in use more locally, for example the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders. Other manuals are used by those of alternative theoretical persuasions, such as the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual. Generally there is a significant scientific debate about the relative merits of a categorical system or a dimensional system (also known as a continuum or spectrum system), as well as significant controversy about the role of science and values in classification schemes and the professional, legal and social uses to which they are put.

Historical Development

In Ancient Greece, Hippocrates and his followers are generally credited with the first classification system for mental llnesses, including mania, melancholia, and paranoia. They held that dysfunction in the brain as well as the rest of the body was due to imbalances in the four humors. Evolution in the scientific concepts of psychopathology (literally referring to diseases of the mind) took hold in the late 18th and 19th centuries following the Renaissance and Enlightenment. Individuals behaviors that had long been recognized came to be grouped into syndromes, notably by Pinel and then Kraepelin. Early 20th Century schemes in Europe and the United States reflected a brain disease model that had emerged during the 19th Century, as well as some ideas from Darwin's theory of evolution and/or Freud's psychoanalytic theories. Meyer advanced a mixed biosocial scheme that emphasized the reactions and adaptations of the whole organism to life experiences. Jellife and White created a scheme including neuroses like "shellshock" and disorders such as "dementia praecox" and manic-depressive psychoses. In 1945, Menninger advanced a classification scheme synthesizing ideas of the time into five major groups. This system was adopted by the Veterans Administration in the United States and strongly influenced the DSM. The DSM and ICD developed, partly in synch, in the context of mainstream psychiatric research and theory. Debates continued and developed about the definition of mental illness, the medical model, categorical vs dimensional approaches, and whether and how to include suffering and impairment criteria.

ICD-11

The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) is an international standard diagnostic classification for a wide variety of health conditions. Chapter 6 focuses on mental, behavioral, and neurodevelopmental conditions.

The ICD website lists subcategories as follows:

• Neurodevelopmental disorders
• Schizophrenia or other primary psychotic disorders
• Catatonia
• Mood disorders
• Anxiety or fear-related disorders
• Obsessive-compulsive or related disorders
• Disorders specifically associated with stress
• Dissociative disorders
• Feeding or eating disorders
• Elimination disorders
• Disorders of bodily distress or bodily experience
• Disorders due to substance use or addictive behaviours
• Impulse control disorders
• Disruptive behaviour or dissocial disorders
• Personality disorders and related traits
• Paraphilic disorders
• Factitious disorders
• Neurocognitive disorders
• Mental or behavioural disorders associated with pregnancy, childbirth or the puerperium
• 6E40 Psychological or behavioural factors affecting disorders or diseases classified elsewhere
• Secondary mental or behavioural syndromes associated with disorders or diseases classified elsewhere
• 6E8Y Other specified mental, behavioural or neurodevelopmental disorders
• 6E8Z Mental, behavioural or neurodevelopmental disorders, unspecified

Within each group there are more specific subcategories. The ICD includes personality disorders on the same domain as other mental disorders, unlike the DSM.

The WHO is revising their classifications in this section as part of the development of the ICD-11 (scheduled for 2014) and an "International Advisory Group" has been established to guide this[2].

DSM-5

The DSM-5 uses the following general categories:

DSM Group	Examples
Disorders usually first diagnosed in infancy, childhood or adolescence. *Conditions such as autism and epilepsy have also been referred to as developmental disorders and developmental disabilities.	Intellectual disability, autism
Delirium, dementia, and amnesia and other cognitive disorders	Alzheimer's disease
Mental disorders due to a general medical condition	AIDS-related psychosis
Substance-related disorders	Alcohol abuse
Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders	Delusional disorder
Mood disorders	Clinical depression, Bipolar disorder
Anxiety disorders	General anxiety disorder
Somatoform disorders	Somatization disorder
Factitious disorders	Munchausen syndrome
Dissociative disorders	Dissociative identity disorder
Sexual and gender identity disorders	Dyspareunia, Gender identity disorder
Eating disorders	Anorexia nervosa, Bulimia nervosa
Sleep disorders	Insomnia
Impulse-control disorders not elsewhere classified	Kleptomania
Adjustment disorders	Adjustment disorder
Personality disorders	Narcissistic personality disorder
Other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention	Tardive dyskinesia, Child abuse

The DSM states that "there is no assumption that each category of mental disorder is a completely discrete entity with absolute boundaries dividing it from other mental disorders or from no mental disorder."

Other schemes

The Chinese Society of Psychiatry's Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders (currently CCMD-3)

The Latin American Guide for Psychiatric Diagnosis (GLDP)..

Childhood Diagnosis

The Diagnostic Classification of Mental Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Early Childhood (DC:0-3) was first published in 1994 by Zero to Three to classify mental health and developmental disorders in the first four years of life. It is sometimes used as a complement to the DSM and ICD, and has been published in 9 languages.

The Research Diagnostic criteria-Preschool Age (RDC-PA) was developed in 2000 to 20002 by a task force of independent investigators with the goal of developing clearly specified diagnostic criteria to faciliate research on psychopathology in this age group.

Usage

The ICD and DSM classification schemes have achieved much widespread acceptance in psychiatry. A survey of 205 psychiatrists, from 66 different countries across all continents, found that ICD-10 was more frequently used and more valued in clincal practice and training, while the DSM-IV was more valued for research, with accessibility to either being limited, and usage by other mental health professionals, policy makers, patients and families less clear. A primary care (e.g. general or family physician) version of the mental disorder section of ICD-10 has been developed (ICD-10-PHC) which has also been used quite extensively internationally

In Japan, most university hospitals use either the ICD or DSM. ICD appears to be the somewhat more used for research or academic purposes, while both were used equally for clinical purposes. Other traditional psychiatric schemes may also be used.

Categorical classification

The classification schemes in common usage are based on separate (but may be overlapping) categories of disorder cheme sometimes termed "neo-Kraepelinian" (after the psychiatrist Kraepelin) which is intended to be atheoretical with regard to etiology (causation). These classification schemes have achieved some widespread acceptance in psychiatry and other fields, and have generally been found to have improved inter-rater reliability, although routine clinical usage is less clear. Questions of validity and utility have been raised, both scientifically and in terms of social, economic and political factors - notably over the inclusion of certain controversial categories, the influence of the pharmaceutical industry, or the stigmatizing effect of being categorized or labelled.

Non-Categorical schemes

Other classification schemes are not based on categories with cut-offs separating the ill from the healthy or the abnormal from the normal (sometimes termed "threshold psychiatry"). Classification may instead be based on broader underlying "spectra", where a spectrum may link together a range of other categorical diagnoses and nonthreshold symptomology in the general population Or a scheme may be based on a set of continuously-varying dimensions, with each individual having a different profile of low or high scores across the different dimensions. Another approach may be based directly on the specific complaints reported by an individual. DSM-V planning committees are currently establishing the research base to move towards a dimensional classification of some disorders, including personality disorder The Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual has an emphasis on dimensionality and the context of mental problems.[3]

Cultural differences

Classification schemes may not apply to all cultures. The DSM is based on predominantly American research studies and has been said to have a decidedly American outlook, meaning that differing disorders or concepts of illness from other cultures (including personalistic rather than naturalistic explanations) may be neglected or misrepresented, while Western cultural phenomena may be taken as universal. Culture-bound syndromes are those hypothesized to be specific to certain cultures (typically taken to mean non-Western or non-mainstream cultures); while some are listed in an appendix of the DSM-IV they are not detailed and there remain open questions about the relationship between Western and Non-Western diagnostic categories and sociocultural factors, which are addressed from different directions by, for example, Cross-cultural psychiatry or anthropology.