View source for Process philosophy

{{PhilPsy}}
'''Process philosophy''' (or '''ontology of becoming''') identifies [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] [[reality]] with change and development. Since the time of [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], philosophers have posited true reality as "timeless", based on permanent [[Substance theory|substance]]s, whilst processes are denied or subordinated to timeless substances. If [[Socrates]] changes, becoming sick, Socrates is still the same (the substance of Socrates being the same), and change (his sickness) only glides over his substance: change is accidental, whereas the substance is essential. Therefore, classic [[ontology]] denies any full reality to change, which is conceived as only accidental and not essential. This classical ontology is what made knowledge and a [[theory of knowledge]] possible, as it was thought that a science of something in becoming was an impossible feat to achieve.<ref>[[Anne Fagot-Largeau]], [http://www.college-de-france.fr/default/EN/all/phi_sci/p1184676830986.htm 7 December 2006 course] at the [[College of France]], first part of a series of courses on the "Ontology of Becoming" {{fr icon}}</ref>

In opposition to the classical model of change as accidental (as by Aristotle) or illusory, process philosophy regards change as the cornerstone of reality—the cornerstone of the Being thought as Becoming. Modern philosophers who appeal to process rather than substance include [[Nietzsche]], [[Heidegger]], [[Charles Sanders Peirce|Charles Peirce]], [[Alfred North Whitehead]], [[Robert M. Pirsig]], [[Charles Hartshorne]], [[Arran Gare]] and [[Nicholas Rescher]]. In physics [[Ilya Prigogine]]<ref>Ilya Prigogine, ''From being to becoming'', W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 1980.</ref> distinguishes between the "physics of being" and the "physics of becoming". Process philosophy covers not just scientific intuitions and experiences, but can be used as a [[conceptual bridge]] to facilitate discussions among religion, philosophy, and science.<ref name="Hustwit">{{cite web|author=Jeremy R. Hustwit|title=Process Philosophy|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/processp/#SH2a|publisher=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|year=2007|page=2.a. In Pursuit of a Holistic Worldview}}</ref>

==History==
{{Original research|date=September 2007}}

=== In Ancient Greek thought ===

An early expression of this viewpoint is in [[Heraclitus]]'s fragments. He posits strife, ''ἡ ἔρις'' (strife, conflict), as the underlying basis of all reality defined by change.<ref>Wheelwright, P. (1959). ''Heraclitus'', Oxford University Press, Oxford UK, ISBN 0-19-924022-1, p.35.</ref> The balance and opposition in strife were the foundations of change and stability in the flux of existence.

===Twentieth century===
In early twentieth century [[philosophy of mathematics]], it was undertaken to develop mathematics as an airtight axiomatic system, in which every truth could be derived logically from a set of axioms.  In the [[foundations of mathematics]], this project is variously understood as [[logicism]] or as part of the [[Formalism (philosophy)|formalist]] program of [[David Hilbert]].  [[Alfred North Whitehead]]  and [[Bertrand Russell]] attempted to complete, or at least greatly facilitate, this program with their seminal book [[Principia Mathematica]], which purported to build a logically consistent set theory on which to found mathematics.    This project may have been ultimately defeasible, and afterwards Whitehead intuited that the entire venture was an organ of an overarching ontological mistake.  He saw that science and mathematics were struggling to overcome an ontology of substances, and thus could not engage phenomena whose nature are more properly understood as 'process'.  This resulted in the most famous work of process philosophy, Alfred North Whitehead's ''[[Process and Reality]]'',<ref>Whitehead, A.N. (1929). Process and Reality, Macmillan, New York.</ref> 1929, a work which continues that begun by [[Hegel]] but describing a more complex and fluid dynamic ontology.

Process thought describes truth as "movement" in and through determinates ([[Hegelian]] truth), rather than describing these determinates as fixed concepts or "things" ([[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] truth). Since Whitehead, process thought is distinguished from [[Hegel]] in that it describes entities  which arise or coalesce in ''becoming'', rather than being simply dialectically determined from prior posited determinates. These entities are referred to as ''complexes of occasions of experience''. It is also distinguished in being not necessarily conflictual or oppositional in operation.  Process may be integrative, destructive or both together, allowing for aspects of interdependence, influence, and confluence, and addressing coherence in universal as well as particular developments, which aspects are not condign to Hegel's system. Additionally, instances of determinate occasions of experience, while always ephemeral, are nonetheless seen as important to define the type and continuity of those occasions of experience that flow from or relate to them.

==Whitehead's ''Process and Reality''==
{{unreferenced section|date=March 2013}}
[[Alfred North Whitehead]] began teaching and writing on process and metaphysics when he joined Harvard at 63 years of age.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.nndb.com/people/273/000032177/|title= Alfred North Whitehead}}</ref>

In Whitehead's ''Science and the Modern World'' (1925), he noted that the human intuitions and experiences of science, aesthetics, ethics, and religion influence the worldview of a community, but that in the last several centuries science dominates [[Western culture]]. Whitehead sought a holistic, comprehensive cosmology that provides a systematic descriptive theory of the world which can be used for the diverse human intuitions gained through ethical, aesthetic, religious, and scientific experiences, and not just the scientific.<ref name="Hustwit"/>

Whitehead's influences were not restricted to philosophers or physicists or mathematicians. He was influenced by the French philosopher [[Henri Bergson]] (1859–1941) {{Citation needed|date=May 2007}} . Process philosophy is also believed {{by whom|date=May 2013}} to have influenced some 20th-century [[modernists]], such as [[D. H. Lawrence]], [[William Faulkner]] and [[Charles Olson]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}

===Process metaphysics===

The process metaphysics elaborated in ''Process and Reality''<ref name="Whitehead 1929">Whitehead, A.N. (1929). ''Process and Reality'', Macmillan, New York.</ref> posits an ontology which is based on the two kinds of existence of entity, that of actual entity and that of abstract entity or abstraction.

Actual entity is a term coined by Whitehead to show the basic realities that shape all things.<ref name="Audi (ed.)">Robert Audi. 1995, ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy.'' Cambridge: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. 851-853.</ref> Actual entities are clusters of events that shape reality.<ref name="Cobb"/> Actual entities do not discuss the substance of anything but talk about how something is happening.<ref name="Cobb"/> The universe is the case based on a series of actual entities intermingled with one another.<ref name="Cobb"/>

The ultimate abstract principle of actual existence for Whitehead is '''creativity'''.  Creativity is a term coined by  Whitehead to show a force in the universe that allows the presence of actual entity a new one based on actual entity, others actual entities.<ref name="Cobb"/>  Creativity is the principle of novelty.<ref name="Audi (ed.)"/> It is manifest in what can be called 'singular causality'. This term may be contrasted with the term 'nomic causality'. An example of singular causation is that I woke this morning because my alarm clock rang. An example of nomic causation is that alarm clocks generally wake people in the morning. Aristotle recognizes singular causality as [[Four causes#Description|efficient causality]]. For Whitehead, there are many contributory singular causes for an event. A further contributory singular cause of my being awoken by my alarm clock this morning was that I was lying asleep near it till it rang.

An '''actual entity''' is a general philosophical term for an utterly determinate and completely concrete individual particular of the actually existing world or universe of [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)#Summary#Theta|changeable entities]] considered in terms of singular causality, about which [[Aristotle#category|categorical statements]] can be made. Whitehead's most far-reaching and profound and radical contribution to metaphysics is his invention of a better way of choosing the actual entities. Whitehead chooses a way of defining the actual entities that makes them all alike, ''qua'' actual entities, with a single exception.

For example, for [[Aristotle]], the actual entities were the [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)#Summary#Zeta|substance]]s, such as Socrates and Bucephalus. Besides Aristotle's ontology of substances, another example of an ontology that posits actual entities is in the [[Monadology|monads]] of [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], which are said to be 'windowless'.

====Whitehead's actual entities====

For Whitehead, the actual entities exist as the only foundational elements of reality.

The actual entities are of two kinds, temporal and atemporal.

With one exception, all actual entities for Whitehead are '''temporal''' and are '''[[wiktionary:actual occasions|occasions of experience]]''' (which are not to be confused with [[consciousness]]). An entity that people commonly think of as a simple concrete [[object (philosophy)|object]], or that Aristotle would think of as a substance, is, in this ontology, considered to be a comoposite of indefinitely many occasions of experience. A human being is thus composed of indefinitely many occasions of experience.

The one exceptional actual entity is at once both temporal and '''atemporal''': God. He is objectively immortal, as well as being immanent in the world. He is objectified in each temporal actual entity; but He is not an eternal object.

The occasions of experience are of four grades. The first grade comprises processes in a physical vacuum such as the propagation of an electromagnetic wave or gravitational influence across empty space. The occasions of experience of the second grade involve just inanimate matter. The occasions of experience of the third grade involve living organisms. Occasions of experience of the fourth grade involve experience in the mode of presentational immediacy, which means more or less what are often called the [[qualia]] of subjective experience. So far as we know, experience in the mode of presentational immediacy occurs in only more evolved animals. That some occasions of experience involve experience in the mode of presentational immediacy is the one and only reason why Whitehead makes the occasions of experience his actual entities; for the actual entities must be of the ultimately general kind. Consequently, it is inessential that an occasion of experience have an aspect in the mode of presentational immediacy; occasions in the grades one, two, and three, lack that aspect.

There is no [[Dualism#Mind-matter and mind-body dualism|mind-matter duality]] in this ontology, because "mind" is simply seen as an abstraction from an occasion of experience which has also a material aspect, which is of course simply another abstraction from it; thus the mental aspect and the material aspect are abstractions from one and the same concrete occasion of experience. The brain is part of the body, both being abstractions of a kind known as ''persistent physical objects'', neither being actual entities. Though not recognized by Aristotle, there is biological evidence, written about by [[Galen]],<ref>Siegel, R.E. (1973). ''Galen: On Psychology, Psychopathology, and Function and Diseases of the Nervous System. An Analysis of his Doctrines, Observations, and Experiments'', Karger, Basel, ISBN 978-3-8055-1479-8.</ref> that the human brain is an essential seat of human experience in the mode of presentational immediacy. We may say that the brain has a material and a mental aspect, all three being abstractions from their indefinitely many constitutive occasions of experience, which are actual entities.

Inherent in each actual entity is its respective dimension of time. Potentially, each Whiteheadean occasion of experience is causally consequential on every other occasion of experience that precedes it in time, and has as its causal consequences every other occasion of experience that follows it in time; thus it has been said that Whitehead's occasions of experience are 'all window', in contrast to Leibniz's 'windowless' monads. In time defined relative to it, each occasion of experience is causally influenced by prior occasions of experiences, and causally influences future occasions of experience. An occasion of experience consists of a process of prehending other occasions of experience, reacting to them. This is the process in process philosophy.

Such process is never deterministic. Consequently, [[free will]] is essential and inherent to the universe.

The causal outcomes obey the usual well-respected rule that the causes precede the effects in time. Some pairs of processes cannot be connected by cause-and-effect relations, and they are said to be [[Spacetime#Basic concepts#Space-like interval|spatially separated]]. This is in perfect agreement with the viewpoint of the Einstein theory of [[special relativity]] and with the [[Minkowski space|Minkowski geometry]] of spacetime.<ref name="Naber">Naber, G.L. (1992). ''The Geometry of Minkowski Spacetime. An Introduction to the Mathematics of the Special Theory of Relativity'', Springer, New York, ISBN 978-0-387-97848-2</ref> It is clear that Whitehead respected these ideas, as may be seen for example in his 1919 book ''An Enquiry concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge''<ref name="Whitehead 1919">Whitehead, A.N. (1919). ''An Enquiry concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK.</ref> as well as in ''Process and Reality''. Time in this view is relative to an inertial reference frame, different reference frames defining different versions of time.

The actual entities, the occasions of experience, are logically '''atomic''' in the sense that an occasion of experience cannot be cut and separated into two other occasions of experience. This kind of logical atomicity is perfectly compatible with indefinitely many spatio-temporal overlaps of occasions of experience. One can explain this kind of atomicity by saying that an occasion of experience has an internal causal structure that could not be reproduced in each of the two complementary sections cut from it. Aristotle's "individual substances" are atomic in the same sense.<ref>Graham, D.W. (1987). ''Aristotle's Two Systems'', Oxford University Press, Oxford UK, ISBN 0-19-824970-5, Chapter 2.</ref> One may offer the same explanation. This atomicity means that a Whiteheadian actual entity cannot be a 'part' of another actual entity, in the sense that an actual entity is not composed of a definite set of separable parts that are also actual entities. Nevertheless, an actual entity can completely contain indefinitely many other actual entities.

Occasions of experience have some topological character, expressed in Whitehead's theory of extension. Fundamental to both Newtonian and to quantum theoretical mechanics is the concept of velocity. The measurement of a velocity requires a finite spatiotemporal extent. Because it has no finite spatiotemporal extent, a single point of Minkowski space cannot be an occasion of experience, but is an abstraction from an infinite set of overlapping or contained occasions of experience, as explained in ''Process and Reality''.<ref name="Whitehead 1929"/> Whitehead did not define the topology of his actual entities in modern terms, but it seems that he envisaged them as convex compact or 'oval' sets in Minkowski space. The open sets of the path topology, explained by Naber,<ref name="Naber"/> cannot be occasions of experience because they are centred on a single spatially isolated point of an underlying Minkowski space in a way that makes them very far from 'oval'. In one view, the occasions of experience have a topology in which they are the open sets, each defined by two points with timelike separation in an underlying Minkowski space. The initial of the two points has a forward light cone and the final of them has a backward light cone; the intersection of these two light cones can be used as the extensive definition of an occasion of experience as an open set. Such an open set cannot be cut into two constituent open sets with the same structure, and that is the meaning of its atomicity. The essence here is that an occasion of experience comprises a finite extent of space time that can be the extensional 'receptacle' of a process. Though the occasions of experience are atomic, they are not necessarily separate in extension, spatiotemporally, from one another. Indefinitely many occasions of experience can '''overlap''' in Minkowski space.

Nexus is a term coined by Whitehead to show the network actual entity from universe. In the universe of actual entities spread<ref name="Audi (ed.)"/>  actual entity. Actual entities are clashing with each other and form other actual entities.<ref name="Cobb"/> The birth of an actual entity based on an actual entity, actual entities around him referred to as nexus.<ref name="Audi (ed.)"/>

An example of a nexus of temporally overlapping occasions of experience is what Whitehead calls an '''enduring physical object''', which corresponds closely with an Aristotelian substance. An enduring physical object has a temporally earliest and a temporally last member. Every member (apart from the earliest) of such a nexus is a causal consequence of the earliest member of the nexus, and every member (apart from the last) of such a nexus is a causal antecedent of the last member of the nexus. There are indefinitely many other causal antecedents and consequences of the enduring physical object, which overlap, but are not members, of the nexus. No member of the nexus is spatially separate from any other member. Within the nexus are indefinitely many continuous streams of overlapping nexūs, each stream including the earliest and the last member of the enduring physical object. Thus an enduring physical object, like an Aristotelian substance, undergoes changes and adventures during the course of its existence.

Another aspect of the atomicity of occasions of experience is that they do not change. An actual entity is what it is. An occasion of experience can be described as a process of change, but it is itself unchangeable.

====Whitehead's abstractions====

Whitehead's '''abstractions''' are conceptual entities that are abstracted from or derived from and founded upon his actual entities. Abstractions are themselves not actual entities. They are the only entities that can be real but are not actual entities.

An abstraction is a conceptual entity that involves more than one single actual entity. Whitehead's ontology refers to importantly structured collections of actual entities as nexuses of actual entities. Collection of actual entities into a '''nexus''' emphasizes some aspect of those entities, and that emphasis is an abstraction, because it means that some aspects of the actual entities are emphasized or dragged away from their actuality, while other aspects are de-emphasized.

Eternal objects is a term coined by  Whitehead to show the possibilities of pure (pure ''potentials'') which will be the principle of forming or giver particular form of [[actual entity]].<ref name="Audi (ed.)"/> Each form of the actual entity presupposes the existence of a principle that gives a certain shape to it.<ref name="Cobb"/> The principle that gives a particular form of this is the eternal objects.<ref name="Cobb"/>

Whitehead admitted indefinitely many eternal objects. An example of an '''eternal object''' is a number, such as the number 'two'. Whitehead held that eternal objects are abstractions of a very high degree of abstraction. Many abstractions, including eternal objects, are potential ingredients of processes.

====Relation between actual entities and abstractions stated in the ontological principle====

For Whitehead, besides its temporal generation by the actual entities which are its contributory causes, a process may be considered as a concrescence of abstract '''ingredient''' eternal objects. God enters into every temporal actual entity.

Whitehead's '''ontological principle''' is that whatever reality pertains to an abstraction is derived from the actual entities upon which it is founded or of which it is comprised.

====Causation and concrescence of a process====
Concrescence is a term coined by  Whitehead to show the process of jointly forming an actual entity that was without form, but about to manifest itself into an entity Actual full (''satisfaction'') based on  datums or for information on the universe.<ref name="Audi (ed.)">Robert Audi. 1995, ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. ''Cambridge: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.</ref> The process of forming an actual entity is the case based on the existing datums. Concretion process can be regarded as ''subjectification process.''<ref name="Cobb">John B. Cobb and David Ray Griffin. 1976, ''Process Theology, An Introduction. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press.''</ref>

Datum is a term coined by  Whitehead to show the different variants of information possessed by actual entity. In process philosophy, datum is obtained through the events of concrescence. Every actual entity has a variety of datum.<ref name="Audi (ed.)"/><ref name="Cobb"/>

==Commentary on Whitehead and on process philosophy==
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2013}}

Whitehead is not an [[idealism|idealist]] in the strict sense {{which|date=May 2013}}. Whitehead's ideas were a significant development of the idea of [[panpsychism]] (also known as panexperientialism, because of Whitehead’s emphasis on experience).

=== On God ===
Process philosophy, for some, gives [[God#Process theology and process philosophy definition of God|God]] a special place in the universe of occasions of experience. God encompasses all the other occasions of experience but also transcends them; thus Whitehead embraces [[panentheism]]. Since, it is argued, free will is inherent to the nature of the universe, God is not omnipotent in Whitehead's metaphysics. God's role is to offer enhanced occasions of experience. God participates in the evolution of the universe by offering possibilities, which may be accepted or rejected. Whitehead's thinking here has given rise to [[process theology]], whose prominent advocates include [[Charles Hartshorne]], [[John B. Cobb, Jr.]], and [[Hans Jonas]], who was also influenced by the non-theological philosopher Martin Heidegger. However, other process philosophers have questioned Whitehead's theology, seeing it as a regressive Platonism.

Whitehead enumerated three essential '''natures of God'''. The '''primordial''' nature of God consists of all potentialities of existence for actual occasions, which Whitehead dubbed eternal objects. God can offer possibilities by ordering the relevance of eternal objects. The '''consequent''' nature of God prehends everything that happens in reality. As such, God experiences all of reality in a sentient manner. The last nature is the '''superjective'''.  This is the way in which God’s synthesis becomes a sense-datum for other actual entities. In some sense, God is prehended by existing actual entities.

== Legacy & Applications ==
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2013}}

=== Medicine ===
Several fields of science and especially [[medicine]] seem {{vague|date=May 2013}} to make liberal use of ideas in process philosophy, notably the theory of [[pain]] and [[healing]] of the late 20th century. The [[Philosophy of healthcare|philosophy of medicine]] began to deviate somewhat from [[scientific method]] and an emphasis on repeatable results in the very late 20th century by embracing [[Health system|population thinking]], and a more pragmatic approach to issues in [[public health]], [[environmental health]] and especially [[mental health]].  In this latter field, [[R. D. Laing]], [[Thomas Szasz]] and [[Michel Foucault]] were instrumental in moving medicine away from emphasis on "cures" and towards concepts of individuals in balance with their society, both of which are changing, and against which no benchmarks or finished "cures" were very likely to be measurable.

=== Psychology ===
In [[psychology]], the subject of imagination was again explored more extensively since Whitehead, and the question of feasibility or "eternal objects" of thought became central to the impaired [[theory of mind]] explorations that framed postmodern [[cognitive science]].  A biological understanding of the most eternal object, that being the emerging of similar but independent cognitive apparatus, led to an obsession with the process "embodiment", that being, the emergence of these [[cognition]]s.  Like Whitehead's God, especially as elaborated in [[J. J. Gibson]]'s [[perceptual psychology]] emphasizing [[affordance]]s, by ordering the relevance of eternal objects (especially the cognitions of other such actors), the world becomes.  Or, it becomes simple enough for human beings to begin to make choices, and to prehend what happens as a result.  These experiences may be summed in some sense but can only approximately be shared, even among very similar cognitions with identical DNA.  An early explorer of this view was [[Alan Turing]] who sought to prove the limits of expressive complexity of human genes in the late 1940s, to put bounds on the complexity of human [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and so assess the feasibility of [[artificial intelligence]] emerging. Since 2000, Process Psychology has progressed as an independent academic and therapeutic discipline.<ref>Cobb, John B., Jr. "Process Psychotherapy: Introduction."  Process Studies 29, no.1 (Spring-Summer 2000): 97-102.</ref>

=== Mathematics ===
In the [[philosophy of mathematics]], some of Whitehead's ideas re-emerged in combination with [[Cognitivism (ethics)|cognitivism]] as the [[cognitive science of mathematics]] and [[embodied mind]] theses.

Somewhat earlier, exploration of [[mathematical practice]] and [[quasi-empiricism in mathematics]] from the 1950s to 1980s had sought alternatives to [[metamathematics]] in social behaviours around [[mathematics]] itself:  for instance, [[Paul Erdős]]'s simultaneous belief in [[Platonism]] and a single "big book" in which all proofs existed, combined with his personal obsessive need or decision to collaborate with the widest possible number of other mathematicians. The process, rather than the outcomes, seemed to drive his explicit behaviour and odd use of language, e.g., he called God the "Supreme Fascist", echoing the role Whitehead assigned, as if the synthesis of Erdős and collaborators in seeking proofs, creating sense-datum for other mathematicians, was itself the expression of a divine will. Certainly, Erdős behaved as if nothing else in the world mattered, including money or love, as emphasized in his biography ''[[The Man Who Loved Only Numbers]]''.

==Theorists==
*[[Alfred North Whitehead]]
*[[John B. Cobb|John Cobb]]
*[[David Ray Griffin]]
*[[Gilles Deleuze]]
*[[Joseph A. Bracken]]
*[[Milič Čapek]]
*[[Wilmon Henry Sheldon]]

==See also==
*[[Dialectic]]
*[[Dialectical monism]]
*[[Elisionism]]
*[[Holomovement]]
*[[Process theology]]
*[[Process psychology]]


==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{SEP|process-philosophy|Process Philosophy|Nicholas Rescher}}
*{{PhilPapers|category|process-philosophy}}
*{{InPho|idea|733}}
*{{IEP|processp}} by Jeremy R. Hustwit
*[http://whiteheadresearch.org/ Whitehead Research Project]
*[http://www.chromatika.org Chromatika website]
*[http://www.forizslaszlo.com/filozofia/folyamat_es_valosag/Whitehead_PR_Part5_Final_Interpratation.pdf Process and Reality. Part V. Final Interpretation]
*Wolfgang Sohst: [http://www.xenomoi.de/product_info.php/info/p180_NEU--Prozessontologie--Ein-systematischer-Entwurf-der-Entstehung-von-Existenz-.html Prozessontologie. Ein systematischer Entwurf der Entstehung von Existenz]. (Berlin 2009)
* Critique of a Metaphysics of Process [http://www.sofiatopia.org/equiaeon/metaphysics.htm]. (Antwerp 2012)
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