Psychology Wiki

Assessment | Biopsychology | Comparative | Cognitive | Developmental | Language | Individual differences | Personality | Philosophy | Social |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |

Biological: Behavioural genetics · Evolutionary psychology · Neuroanatomy · Neurochemistry · Neuroendocrinology · Neuroscience · Psychoneuroimmunology · Physiological Psychology · Psychopharmacology (Index, Outline)


This article needs rewriting to enhance its relevance to psychologists..
Please help to improve this page yourself if you can..


File:Teeth by David Shankbone.jpg

An adult human's visible teeth.

Teeth (singular, tooth) are small white structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Some animals, particularly carnivores, also use teeth for hunting or defense. The roots of teeth are covered by gums.

Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of mammal species. Paleontologists use teeth to identify fossil species and determine their relationships. The shape of an animal's teeth is related to its diet. For example, plant matter is hard to digest, so herbivores have many molars for chewing. Carnivores, on the other hand, need canines to kill and tear meat.

Mammals are diphyodont, meaning that they develop two sets of teeth. In humans, the first set (the "baby," "milk," "primary" or deciduous" set) normally starts to appear at about six months of age, although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth, known as Neonatal teeth. Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known as teething and can be painful.

Some animals develop only one set of teeth (monophyodont) while others develop many sets (polyphyodont). Sharks, for example, grow a new set of teeth every two weeks to replace worn teeth. Rodent incisors grow and wear away continually through gnawing, maintaining relatively constant length. Some rodent species, such as the sibling vole and the guinea pig, have continuously growing molars in addition to incisors.[1][2]

Anatomy[]

File:Lower wisdom tooth.jpg

A third molar.

Main article: Dental anatomy

Dental anatomy is a field of anatomy dedicated to the study of tooth structures. The development, appearance, and classification of teeth fall within its field of study, though dental occlusion, or contact among teeth, does not. Dental anatomy is also a taxonomical science as it is concerned with the naming of teeth and their structures. This information serves a practical purpose for dentists, enabling them to easily identify teeth and structures during treatment.

The anatomic crown of a tooth is the area covered in enamel above the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[3] The majority of the crown is composed of dentin with the pulp chamber in the center.[4] The crown is within bone before eruption.[5] After eruption, it is almost always visible. The anatomic root is found below the cementoenamel junction and is covered with cementum. As with the crown, dentin composes most of the root, which normally have pulp canals. A tooth may have multiple roots or just one root. Canines and most premolars, except for maxillary (upper) first premolars, usually have one root. Maxillary first premolars and mandibular molars usually have two roots. Maxillary molars usually have three roots. Additional roots are referred to as supernumerary roots.

File:Jointtypodonts.jpg

Models of human teeth as they exist within the alveolar bone.

Humans usually have 20 primary teeth (also called deciduous, baby, or milk teeth) and 32 permanent teeth. Among primary teeth, 10 are found in the (upper)maxilla and the other 10 in the (lower) mandible. Teeth are classified as incisors, canines, and molars. In the primary set of teeth, there are two types of incisors, centrals and laterals, and two types of molars, first and second. All primary teeth are replaced with permanent counterparts except for molars, which are replaced by permanent premolars. Among permanent teeth, 16 are found in the maxilla with the other 16 in the mandible. The maxillary teeth are the maxillary central incisor, maxillary lateral incisor, maxillary canine, maxillary first premolar, maxillary second premolar, maxillary first molar, maxillary second molar, and maxillary third molar. The mandibular teeth are the mandibular central incisor, mandibular lateral incisor, mandibular canine, mandibular first premolar, mandibular second premolar, mandibular first molar, mandibular second molar, and mandibular third molar. Third molars are commonly called "wisdom teeth" and may never erupt into the mouth or form at all. If any additional teeth form, for example, fourth and fifth molars, which are rare, they are referred to as supernumerary teeth.[6]

Most teeth have identifiable features that distinguish them from others. There are several different notation systems to refer to a specific tooth. The three most commons systems are the FDI World Dental Federation notation, the universal numbering system, and Palmer notation method. The FDI system is used worldwide, and the universal is used widely in the United States.

Parts[]

File:Tooth Section.svg

Section of a human molar

Enamel[]

Main article: Tooth enamel

Enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized substance of the body and is one of the four major tissues which make up the tooth, along with dentin, cementum, and dental pulp.[7] It is normally visible and must be supported by underlying dentin. Ninety-six percent of enamel consists of mineral, with water and organic material composing the rest.[8] The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish white. At the edges of teeth where there is no dentin underlying the enamel, the color sometimes has a slightly blue tone. Since enamel is semitranslucent, the color of dentin and any restorative dental material underneath the enamel strongly affects the appearance of a tooth. Enamel varies in thickness over the surface of the tooth and is often thickest at the cusp, up to 2.5 mm, and thinnest at its border, which is seen clinically as the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[9]

Enamel's primary mineral is hydroxyapatite, which is a crystalline calcium phosphate.[10] The large amount of minerals in enamel accounts not only for its strength but also for its brittleness.[11] Dentin, which is less mineralized and less brittle, compensates for enamel and is necessary as a support.[10] Unlike dentin and bone, enamel does not contain collagen. Instead, it has two unique classes of proteins called amelogenins and enamelins. While the role of these proteins is not fully understood, it is believed that they aid in the development of enamel by serving as framework support among other functions.[12]

Dentin[]

Main article: Dentin

Dentin is the substance between enamel or cementum and the pulp chamber. It is secreted by the odontoblasts of the dental pulp.[13] The formation of dentin is known as dentinogenesis. The porous, yellow-hued material is made up of 70% inorganic materials, 20% organic materials, and 10% water by weight.[14] Because it is softer than enamel, it decays more rapidly and is subject to severe cavities if not properly treated, but dentin still acts as a protective layer and supports the crown of the tooth.

Dentin is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic matrix of collagenous proteins. Dentin has microscopic channels, called dentinal tubules, which radiate outward through the dentin from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum or enamel border.[15] The diameter of these tubules range from 2.5 μm near the pulp, to 1.2 μm in the midportion, and 900 nm near the dentino-enamel junction.[16] Although they may have tiny side-branches, the tubules do not intersect with each other. Their length is dictated by the radius of the tooth. The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal tubules is genetically determined.

Cementum[]

Main article: Cementum

Cementum is a specialized bony substance covering the root of a tooth.[13] It is approximately 45% inorganic material (mainly hydroxyapatite), 33% organic material (mainly collagen) and 22% water. Cementum is excreted by cementoblasts within the root of the tooth and is thickest at the root apex. Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than either dentin or enamel. The principal role of cementum is to serve as a medium by which the periodontal ligaments can attach to the tooth for stability. At the cementoenamel junction, the cementum is acellular due to its lack of cellular components, and this acellular type covers at least ⅔ of the root.[17] The more permeable form of cementum, cellular cementum, covers about ⅓ of the root apex.[18]

Pulp[]

Main article: Pulp (tooth)

The dental pulp is the central part of the tooth filled with soft connective tissue.[14] This tissue contains blood vessels and nerves that enter the tooth from a hole at the apex of the root.[19] Along the border between the dentin and the pulp are odontoblasts, which initiate the formation of dentin.[14] Other cells in the pulp include fibroblasts, preodontoblasts, macrophages and T lymphocytes.[20] The pulp is commonly called "the nerve" of the tooth.

Development[]

Main article: Tooth development
File:Molarsindevelopment11-24-05.jpg

Radiograph of lower right third, second, and first molars in different stages of development.

Tooth development is the complex process by which teeth form from embryonic cells, grow, and erupt into the mouth. Although many diverse species have teeth, non-human tooth development is largely the same as in humans. For human teeth to have a healthy oral environment, enamel, dentin, cementum, and the periodontium must all develop during appropriate stages of fetal development. Primary (baby) teeth start to form between the sixth and eighth weeks in utero, and permanent teeth begin to form in the twentieth week in utero.[21] If teeth do not start to develop at or near these times, they will not develop at all.

A significant amount of research has focused on determining the processes that initiate tooth development. It is widely accepted that there is a factor within the tissues of the first branchial arch that is necessary for the development of teeth.[22]

Tooth development is commonly divided into the following stages: the bud stage, the cap, the bell, and finally maturation. The staging of tooth development is an attempt to categorize changes that take place along a continuum; frequently it is difficult to decide what stage should be assigned to a particular developing tooth.[22] This determination is further complicated by the varying appearance of different histologic sections of the same developing tooth, which can appear to be different stages.

The tooth bud (sometimes called the tooth germ) is an aggregation of cells that eventually forms a tooth. It is organized into three parts: the enamel organ, the dental papilla and the dental follicle.[23] The enamel organ is composed of the outer enamel epithelium, inner enamel epithelium, stellate reticulum and stratum intermedium.[23] These cells give rise to ameloblasts, which produce enamel and the reduced enamel epithelium. The growth of cervical loop cells into the deeper tissues forms Hertwig's Epithelial Root Sheath, which determines a tooth's root shape. The dental papilla contains cells that develop into odontoblasts, which are dentin-forming cells.[23] Additionally, the junction between the dental papilla and inner enamel epithelium determines the crown shape of a tooth.[24] The dental follicle gives rise to three important entities: cementoblasts, osteoblasts, and fibroblasts. Cementoblasts form the cementum of a tooth. Osteoblasts give rise to the alveolar bone around the roots of teeth. Fibroblasts develop the periodontal ligaments which connect teeth to the alveolar bone through cementum.[25]

Eruption[]

Main article: Tooth eruption

Tooth eruption in humans is a process in tooth development in which the teeth enter the mouth and become visible. Current research indicates that the periodontal ligaments play an important role in tooth eruption. Primary teeth erupt into the mouth from around six months until two years of age. These teeth are the only ones in the mouth until a person is about six years old. At that time, the first permanent tooth erupts. This stage, during which a person has a combination of primary and permanent teeth, is known as the mixed stage. The mixed stage lasts until the last primary tooth is lost and the remaining permanent teeth erupt into the mouth.

There have been many theories about the cause of tooth eruption. One theory proposes that the developing root of a tooth pushes it into the mouth.[26] Another, known as the cushioned hammock theory, resulted from microscopic study of teeth, which was thought to show a ligament around the root. It was later discovered that the "ligament" was merely an artifact created in the process of preparing the slide.[27] Currently, the most widely held belief is that the periodontal ligaments provide the main impetus for the process.[28]

The onset of primary tooth loss has been found to correlate strongly with somatic and psychological criteria of school readiness.[29][30]

Supporting structures[]

File:Eruptingtoothwithlabels11-24-05.jpg

Histologic slide of tooth erupting into the mouth.
A: tooth
B: gingiva
C: bone
D: periodontal ligaments

The periodontium is the supporting structure of a tooth, helping to attach the tooth to surrounding tissues and to allow sensations of touch and pressure.[31] It consists of the cementum, periodontal ligaments, alveolar bone, and gingiva. Of these, cementum is the only one that is a part of a tooth. Periodontal ligaments connect the alveolar bone to the cementum. Alveolar bone surrounds the roots of teeth to provide support and creates what is commonly called an alveolus, or "socket". Lying over the bone is the gingiva or gum, which is readily visible in the mouth.

Periodontal ligaments[]

The periodontal ligament is a specialized connective tissue that attaches the cementum of a tooth to the alveolar bone. This tissue covers the root of the tooth within the bone. Each ligament has a width of 0.15 - 0.38 mm, but this size decreases over time.[32] The functions of the periodontal ligaments include attachment of the tooth to the bone, support for the tooth, formation and resorption of bone during tooth movement, sensation, and eruption.[33] The cells of the periodontal ligaments include osteoblasts, osteoclasts, fibroblasts, macrophages, cementoblasts, and epithelial cell rests of Malassez.[34] Consisting of mostly Type I and III collagen, the fibers are grouped in bundles and named according to their location. The groups of fibers are named alveolar crest, horizontal, oblique, periapical, and interradicular fibers.[35] The nerve supply generally enters from the bone apical to the tooth and forms a network around the tooth toward the crest of the gingiva.[36] When pressure is exerted on a tooth, such as during chewing or biting, the tooth moves slightly in its socket and stretches the periodontal ligaments. The nerve fibers can then send the information to the central nervous system for interpretation.

Alveolar bone[]

The alveolar bone is the bone of the jaw which forms the alveolus around teeth.[37] Like any other bone in the human body, alveolar bone is modified throughout life. Osteoblasts create bone and osteoclasts destroy it, especially if force is placed on a tooth.[31] As is the case when movement of teeth is attempted through orthodontics, an area of bone under compressive force from a tooth moving toward it has a high osteoclast level, resulting in bone resorption. An area of bone receiving tension from periodontal ligaments attached to a tooth moving away from it has a high number of osteoblasts, resulting in bone formation.

Gingiva[]

The gingiva ("gums") is the mucosal tissue that overlays the jaws. There are three different types of epithelium associated with the gingiva: gingival, junctional, and sulcular epithelium. These three types form from a mass of epithelial cells known as the epithelial cuff between the tooth and the mouth.[38] The gingival epithelium is not associated directly with tooth attachment and is visible in the mouth. The junctional epithelium, composed of the basal lamina and hemidesmosomes, forms an attachment to the tooth.[33] The sulcular epithelium is nonkeratinized stratified squamous tissue on the gingiva which touches but is not attached to the tooth.[39] This leaves a small potential space between the gingiva and tooth which can collect bacteria, plaque, and calculus.

Tooth decay[]

Plaque[]

Main article: Dental plaque

Plaque is a biofilm consisting of large quantities of various bacteria that form on teeth.[40] If not removed regularly, plaque buildup can lead to dental cavities (caries) or periodontal problems such as gingivitis. Given time, plaque can mineralize along the gingiva, forming tartar. The microorganisms that form the biofilm are almost entirely bacteria (mainly streptococcus and anaerobes), with the composition varying by location in the mouth.[41] Streptococcus mutans is the most important bacteria associated with dental caries.

Certain bacteria in the mouth live off the remains of foods, especially sugars and starches. In the absence of oxygen they produce lactic acid, which dissolves the calcium and phosphorus in the enamel.[13][42] This process, known as "demineralisation", leads to tooth destruction. Saliva gradually neutralises the acids which cause the pH of the tooth surface to rise above the critical pH. This causes 'remineralisation', the return of the dissolved minerals to the enamel. If there is sufficient time between the intake of foods then the impact is limited and the teeth can repair themselves. Saliva is unable to penetrate through plaque, however, to neutralize the acid produced by the bacteria.

Caries (Cavities)[]

File:Toothdecay.png

Tooth decay on a premolar.

Main article: Dental caries

Dental caries, also described as "tooth decay" or "dental cavities", is an infectious disease which damages the structures of teeth.[43] The disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in severe cases, death. Dental caries has a long history, with evidence showing the disease was present in the Bronze, Iron, and Middle ages but also prior to the neolithic period.[44] The largest increases in the prevalence of caries have been associated with diet changes.[44][45] Today, caries remains one of the most common diseases throughout the world. In the United States, dental caries is the most common chronic childhood disease, being at least five times more common than asthma.[46] Countries that have experienced an overall decrease in cases of tooth decay continue to have a disparity in the distribution of the disease.[47] Among children in the United States and Europe, 60-80% of cases of dental caries occur in 20% of the population.[48]

Tooth decay is caused by certain types of acid-producing bacteria which cause the most damage in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose.[49][50] The resulting acidic levels in the mouth affect teeth because a tooth's special mineral content causes it to be sensitive to low pH. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction, various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form, function, and aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventative and prophylactic measures, such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries.[51]

Tooth care[]

File:Toothbrush 20050716 004.jpg

Toothbrushes are commonly used to clean teeth.

Main article: Oral hygiene

Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping the mouth clean and is a means of preventing dental caries, gingivitis, periodontal disease, bad breath, and other dental disorders. It consists of both professional and personal care. Regular cleanings, usually done by dentists and dental hygienists, remove tartar (mineralized plaque) that may develop even with careful brushing and flossing. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling, using various instruments or devices to loosen and remove deposits from teeth.

The purpose of cleaning teeth is to remove plaque, which consists mostly of bacteria.[52] Healthcare professionals recommend regular brushing twice a day (in the morning and in the evening, or after meals) in order to prevent formation of plaque and tartar.[51] A toothbrush is able to remove most plaque, excepting areas between teeth. As a result, flossing is also considered a necessity to maintain oral hygiene. When used correctly, dental floss removes plaque from between teeth and at the gum line, where periodontal disease often begins and could develop caries. Electric toothbrushes are not considered more effective than manual brushes for most people.[53] The most important advantage of electric toothbrushes is their ability to aid people with dexterity difficulties, such as those associated with rheumatoid arthritis.

In addition, fluoride therapy is often recommended to protect against dental caries. Water fluoridation and fluoride supplements decrease the incidence of dental caries. Fluoride helps prevent dental decay by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel.[54] The incorporated fluoride makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and thus more resistant to decay.[55] Topical fluoride, such as a fluoride toothpaste or mouthwash, is also recommended to protect teeth surfaces. Many dentists include application of topical fluoride solutions as part of routine cleanings.

Restorations[]

After a tooth has been damaged or destroyed, restoration of the missing structure can be achieved with a variety of treatments. Restorations may be created from a variety of materials, including glass ionomer, amalgam, gold, porcelain, and composite.[56] Small restorations placed inside a tooth are referred to as "intracoronal restorations". These restorations may be formed directly in the mouth or may be cast using the lost-wax technique, such as for some inlays and onlays. When larger portions of a tooth are lost, an "extracoronal restoration" may be fabricated, such as a crown or a veneer, to restore the involved tooth.

File:Dent,tooth,zub.jpg

Picture of a restored premolar.

When a tooth is lost, dentures, bridges, or implants may be used as replacements.[57] Dentures are usually the least costly whereas implants are usually the most expensive. Dentures may replace complete arches of the mouth or only a partial number of teeth. Bridges replace smaller spaces of missing teeth and use adjacent teeth to support the restoration. Dental implants may be used to replace a single tooth or a series of teeth. Though implants are the most expensive treatment option, they are often the most desirable restoration because of their esthetics and function. To improve the function of dentures, implants may be used as support.[58]

Abnormalities[]

Tooth abnormalities may be categorized according to whether they have environmental or developmental causes.[59] While environmental abnormalities may appear to have an obvious cause, there may not appear to be any known cause for some developmental abnormalities. Environmental forces may affect teeth during development, destroy tooth structure after development, discolor teeth at any stage of development, or alter the course of tooth eruption. Developmental abnormalities most commonly affect the number, size, shape, and structure of teeth.

Digestive[]

Alteration during tooth development[]

Tooth abnormalities caused by environmental factors during tooth development have long-lasting effects. Enamel and dentin do not regenerate after they mineralize initially. Enamel hypoplasia is a condition in which the amount of enamel formed is inadequate.[60] This results either in pits and grooves in areas of the tooth or in widespread absence of enamel. Diffuse opacities of enamel does not affect the amount of enamel but changes its appearance. Affected enamel has a different translucency than the rest of the tooth. Demarcated opacities of enamel have sharp boundaries where the translucency decreases and manifest a white, cream, yellow, or brown color. All these may be caused by a systemic event, such as an exanthematous fever.[61] Turner's hypoplasia is a portion of missing or diminished enamel on a permanent tooth usually from a prior infection of a nearby primary tooth. Hypoplasia may also result from antineoplastic therapy. Dental fluorosis is condition which results from ingesting excessive amounts of fluoride and leads to teeth which are spotted, yellow, brown, black or sometimes pitted. Enamel hypoplasia resulting from syphilis is frequently referred to as Hutchinson's teeth, which is considered one part of Hutchinson's triad.[62]

Destruction after development[]

Tooth destruction from processes other than dental caries is considered a normal physiologic process but may become severe enough to become a pathologic condition. Attrition is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from opposing teeth.[63] Attrition initially affects the enamel and, if unchecked, may proceed to the underlying dentin. Abrasion is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from a foreign element.[64] If this force begins at the cementoenamel junction, then progression of tooth loss can be rapid since enamel is very thin in this region of the tooth. A common source of this type of tooth wear is excessive force when using a toothbrush. Erosion is the loss of tooth structure due to chemical dissolution by acids not of bacterial origin.[65][66] Signs of tooth destruction from erosion is a common characteristic in the mouths of people with bulimia since vomiting results in exposure of the teeth to gastric acids. Another important source of erosive acids are from frequent sucking of lemon juice. Abfraction is the loss of tooth structure from flexural forces. As teeth flex under pressure, the arrangement of teeth touching each other, known as occlusion, causes tension on one side of the tooth and compression on the other side of the tooth. This is believed to cause V-shaped depressions on the side under tension and C-shaped depressions on the side under compression. When tooth destruction occurs at the roots of teeth, the process is referred to as internal resorption, when caused by cells within the pulp, or external resorption, when caused by cells in the periodontal ligament.

Discoloration[]

Discoloration of teeth may result from bacteria stains, tobacco, tea, coffee, foods with an abundance of chlorophyll, restorative materials, and medications.[67] Stains from bacteria may cause colors varying from green to black to orange. Green stains also result from foods with chlorophyll or excessive exposure to copper or nickel. Amalgam, a common dental restorative material, may turn adjacent areas of teeth black or gray. Chlorhexidine, a mouthwash, is associated with causing yellow-brown stains near the gingiva on teeth. Systemic disorders also can cause tooth discoloration. Congenital erythropoietic porphyria causes porphyrins to be deposited in teeth, causing a red-brown coloration. Blue discoloration may occur with alkaptonuria and rarely with Parkinson's disease. Erythroblastosis fetalis and biliary atresia are diseases which may cause teeth to appear green from the deposition of biliverdin. Also, trauma may change a tooth to a pink, yellow, or dark gray color. Pink and red discolorations are also associated in patients with lepromatous leprosy. Some medications, such as tetracycline antibiotics, may become incorporated into the structure of a tooth, causing intrinsic staining of the teeth.

Alteration of eruption[]

Tooth eruption may be altered by some environmental factors. When eruption is prematurely stopped, the tooth is said to be impacted. The most common cause of tooth impaction is lack of space in the mouth for the tooth.[68] Other causes may be tumors, cysts, trauma, and thickened bone or soft tissue. Ankylosis of a tooth occurs when the tooth has already erupted into the mouth but the cementum or dentin has fused with the alveolar bone. This may cause a person to retain their primary tooth instead of having it replaced by a permanent one.

A technique for altering the natural progression of eruption is employed by orthodontists who wish to delay or speed up the eruption of certain teeth for reasons of space maintenance or otherwise preventing crowding and/or spacing. If a primary tooth is extracted prior to the root of its succeeding permanent tooth reaching ⅓ of its total growth, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be delayed. Conversely, if the roots of the permanent tooth are more than ⅔ complete, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be accelerated. Between ⅓ and ⅔, it is unknown exactly what will occur to the speed of eruption.

Developmental[]

Abnormality in number[]

Anodontia is the total lack of tooth development. Hyperdontia is the presence of a higher-than-normal number of teeth, where as Hypodontia is the lack of some teeth. Usually, hypodontia refers to the lack of development of one or more teeth, and oligodontia may be used to describe the absence of 6 or more teeth. Some systemic disorders which may result in hyperdontia include Apert syndrome, Cleidocranial dysostosis, Crouzon syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Gardner syndrome, and Sturge-Weber syndrome.[69] Some systemic disorders which may result in hypodontia include Crouzon syndrome, Ectodermal dysplasia, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and Gorlin syndrome.[70]

Abnormality in size[]

Microdontia is a condition where teeth are smaller than the usual size, and macrodontia is where teeth are larger than the usual size. Microdontia of a single tooth is more likely to occur in a maxillary lateral incisor. The second most likely tooth to have microdontia are third molars. Macrodontia of all the teeth is known to occur in pituitary gigantism and pineal hyperplasia. It may also occur on one side of the face in cases of hemifacial hyperplasia.

Abnormality in shape[]

File:Milk.teeth.fusion.jpg

The fusion of two deciduous teeth.

Gemination occurs when a developing tooth incompletely splits into the formation of two teeth. Fusion is the union of two adjacent teeth during development. Concrescence is the fusion of two separate teeth only in their cementum. Accessory cusps are additional cusps on a tooth and may manifest as a Talon cusp, Cusp of Carabelli, or Dens evaginatus. Dens invaginatus, also called Dens in dente, is a deep invagination in a tooth causing the appearance of a tooth within a tooth. Ectopic enamel is enamel found in an unusual location, such as the root of a tooth. Taurodontism is a condition where the body of the tooth and pulp chamber is enlarged, and is associated with Klinefelter syndrome, Tricho-dento-osseous syndrome, Triple X syndrome, and XYY syndrome.[71] Hypercementosis is excessive formation of cementum, which may result from trauma, inflammation, acromegaly, rheumatic fever, and Paget's disease of bone.[71] A dilaceration is a bend in the root which may have been caused by trauma to the tooth during formation. Supernumerary roots is the presence of a greater number of roots on a tooth than expected.

Abnormality in structure[]

Amelogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which enamel does not form properly or at all.[72] Dentinogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which dentin does not form properly and is sometimes associated with osteogenesis imperfecta.[73] Dentin dysplasia is a disorder in which the roots and pulp of teeth may be affected. Regional odontodysplasia is a disorder affecting enamel, dentin, and pulp and causes the teeth to appear "ghostly" on radiographs.[74]

In animals[]

File:Mammoth ivory hg.jpg

Section through the ivory tusk of a mammoth

Main article: Tooth (animal)

Teeth vary greatly among animals. Some animals, such as turtles and tortoises, are toothless. Others, such as sharks, may go through many teeth in their lifetime. Walrus tusks are canine teeth that grow continuously throughout life.[75] Dog teeth are less likely than human teeth to form dental caries because of the very high pH of dog saliva, which prevents enamel from demineralizing.[76] Unlike humans whose ameloblasts die after tooth development, rodents continually produce enamel and must wear down their teeth by gnawing on various materials.[77] Horse teeth include twelve premolars, twelve molars, and twelve incisors. The structure of horse teeth is different from human teeth as the enamel and dentin layers are intertwined.[78]

See also[]

References[]

  1. Tummers M and Thesleff I. Root or crown: a developmental choice orchestrated by the differential regulation of the epithelial stem cell niche in the tooth of two rodent species. Development (2003). 130(6):1049-57.
  2. AM Hunt. A description of the molar teeth and investing tissues of normal guinea pigs. J Dent Res. (1959) 38(2):216-31.
  3. Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion. 8th edition. Page 6. ISBN 0-7216-9382-2.
  4. Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 3. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  5. Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion. 8th edition. Page 9. ISBN 0-7216-9382-2.
  6. Kokten G, Balcioglu H, Buyukertan M. Supernumerary Fourth and Fifth Molars: A Report of Two Cases. Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, 2003 November; (4)4:067-076. Page accessed February 10, 2007.
  7. Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, "Histology: a Text and Atlas", 4th ed. (Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002), p. 441.
  8. Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 1.
  9. Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 219.
  10. 10.0 10.1 Johnson, Clarke. "Biology of the Human Dentition," 1998. Page accessed on January 24, 2007.
  11. Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 219.
  12. Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 198.
  13. 13.0 13.1 13.2 Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 448. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
  14. 14.0 14.1 14.2 Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 150. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  15. Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 450. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
  16. Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 152. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  17. Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 236. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  18. Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 241. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  19. Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 451. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
  20. Walton, Richard E. and Mahmoud Torabinejad. Principles and Practice of Endodontics. 3rd ed. 2002. Pages 11-13. ISBN 0-7216-9160-9.
  21. A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 95. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  22. 22.0 22.1 A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 81. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  23. 23.0 23.1 23.2 *University of Texas Medical Branch. "Lab Exercises: Tooth development." Page found here.
  24. A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), pp. 86 and 102. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  25. *Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition, p. 453. 2003. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
  26. Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. pp. 1-3.
  27. Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. p. 3.
  28. Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. p. 5.
  29. Ernst-Michael Kranich, "Anthropologie", in F. Bohnsack and E-M Kranich (eds.), Erziehungswissenschaft und Waldorfpädagogik, Reihe Pädagogik Beltz, Weinheim 1990, p. 126, citing F. Ilg and L. Ames (Gesell Institute), School Readiness, p. 236ff
  30. "...the loss of the first deciduous tooth can serve as a definite indicator of a male child's readiness for reading and schoolwork", Diss. Cornell U. Silvestro, John R. 1977. “Second Dentition and School Readiness.” New York State Dental Journal 43 (March): 155—8
  31. 31.0 31.1 Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 452. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
  32. Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 256. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  33. 33.0 33.1 Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 453. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
  34. Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 260. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  35. Listgarten, Max A. "Histology of the Periodontium: Principal fibers of the periodontal ligament," hosted on the University of Pennsylvania and Temple University website. Created May 8, 1999, revised 01/16/2007. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
  36. Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 270. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  37. Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 274. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  38. Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Pages 247 and 248. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  39. Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 280. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  40. "Oral Health Topics: Plaque", hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
  41. Introduction to dental plaque, hosted on the http://www.dentistry.leeds.ac.uk Leeds Dental Institute] website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
  42. Ophardt, Charles E. "Sugar and tooth decay", hosted on the Elmhurst College website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
  43. Dental Cavities, MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia, page accessed August 14, 2006.
  44. 44.0 44.1 Epidemiology of Dental Disease, hosted on the University of Illinois at Chicago website. Page accessed January 9, 2007.
  45. Suddick, Richard P. and Norman O. Harris. "Historical Perspectives of Oral Biology: A Series". Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine, 1(2), pages 135-151, 1990.
  46. Healthy People: 2010. Html version hosted on Healthy People.gov website. Page accessed August 13, 2006.
  47. "Dental caries", from the Disease Control Priorities Project. Page accessed August 15, 2006.
  48. Touger-Decker, Riva and Cor van Loveren. Sugars and dental caries, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78, 2003, pages 881S–892S.
  49. Hardie, J.M. (1982). The microbiology of dental caries. Dental Update, 9, 199-208.
  50. Holloway, P.J. (1983). The role of sugar in the etiology of dental caries. Journal of Dentistry, 11, 189-213.
  51. 51.0 51.1 Oral Health Topics: Cleaning your teeth and gums. Hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed August 15, 2006.
  52. Introduction to Dental Plaque. Hosted on the Leeds Dental Institute Website, page accessed August 14, 2006.
  53. Thumbs down for electric toothbrush, hosted on the BBC News website, posted January 21, 2003. Page accessed January 23, 2007.
  54. Cate, A.R. Ten. "Oral Histology: development, structure, and function." 5th edition, 1998, p. 223. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
  55. Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. "Histology: a text and atlas." 4th edition, p. 453. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
  56. "Oral Health Topics: Dental Filling Options", hosted on the ADA website, page accessed May 8, 2007.
  57. "Prosthodontic Procedures", hosted on the The American College of Prosthodontists website. Page accessed May 16, 2007.
  58. "Dental Implants", hosted on the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons website. Page accessed May 16, 2007.
  59. Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 50. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
  60. Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. "Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion," 8th edition, p. 31.
  61. Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 51. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
  62. Syphilis: Complications, hosted on the Mayo Clinic website. Page accessed January 21, 2007.
  63. "Loss of Tooth Structure", hosted on the American Dental Hygiene Association website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
  64. "Abnormalities of Teeth", hosted on the University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Dentistry website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
  65. Yip, Kevin H-K., Roger J. Smales, John A. Kaidonis. "The diagnosis and control of extrinsic acid erosion of tooth substance", hosted on the Academy of General Dentistry website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
  66. Gandara B.K., Truelove E.L. "Diagnosis and Management of Dental Erosion", online version hosted on the The Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice website. Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, 1999 October; (1)1, pages 16-23. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
  67. Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 63. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
  68. Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 66. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
  69. Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 70. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
  70. Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 69. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
  71. 71.0 71.1 Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 85. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
  72. Amelogenesis imperfecta, hosted on the Genetics Home Reference website, a service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
  73. Dentinogenesis imperfecta, hosted on the Genetics Home Reference website, a service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
  74. Cho, Shiu-yin, Conservative Management of Regional Odontodysplasia: Case Report, hosted on the Canadian Dental Association website. Issue 72(8): pp. 735–8. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
  75. The Permanent Canine Teeth, hosted on the University of Illinois at Chicago website. Page accessed February 5, 2007.
  76. Chris C. Pinney, The Illustrated Veterinary Guide for Dogs, Cats, Birds, and Exotic Pets (Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books, 1992), p. 187.
  77. Caceci, Thomas. Veterinary Histology with subtitle "Digestive System: Oral Cavity" found here.
  78. Encarta article found here and Randall-Bowman, whose link can be found here
  • Ahlquist, M. L., Edwall, L. G., Franzen, O. G., & Haegerstam, G. A. (1984). Perception of pulpal pain as a function of intradental nerve activity: Pain Vol 19(4) Aug 1984, 353-366.
  • Allendy, R. (1987). Affective elements connected with dentition: Revue Francaise de Psychanalyse 51(1) Jan-Feb 1987, 123-127.
  • Altshuler, B. D., Dechow, P. C., Waller, D. A., & Hardy, B. W. (1990). An investigation of the oral pathologies occurring in bulimia nervosa: International Journal of Eating Disorders Vol 9(2) Mar 1990, 191-199.
  • Alvarez Garcia, M. V., Jane Parera, R. M., & Alvarez, E. T. (2005). Observation protocol of facial tipology and malocclusions: Revista de Logopedia, Foniatria y Audiologia Vol 25(1) Jan-Mar 2005, 19-27.
  • Andersson, S. A., Ericson, T., Holmgren, E., & Lindqvist, G. (1977). Analgesic effects of peripheral conditioning stimulation: I. General pain threshold effects on human teeth and a correlation to psychological factors: Acupuncture & Electro-Therapeutics Research Vol 2(3-4) 1977, 307-322.
  • Andersson, S. A., & Holmgren, E. (1978). Analgesic effects of peripheral conditioning stimulation: III. Effect of high frequency stimulation; segmental mechanisms interacting with pain: Acupuncture & Electro-Therapeutics Research Vol 3(1-2) 1978, 23-36.
  • Andersson, S. A., Holmgren, E., & Roos, A. (1977). Analgesic effects of peripheral conditioning stimulation: II. Importance of certain stimulation parameters: Acupuncture & Electro-Therapeutics Research Vol 2(3-4) 1977, 237-246.
  • Andrews, G., Woodruff, E., MacKinnon, K. A., & Yoon, S. (2003). Concept development for kindergarten children through a health simulation: Journal of Computer Assisted Learning Vol 19(2) Jun 2003, 209-219.
  • Appollonio, I., Carabellese, C., Frattola, A., & Trabucchi, M. (1997). Dental status, quality of life, and mortality in an older community population: A multivariate approach: Journal of the American Geriatrics Society Vol 45(11) Nov 1997, 1315-1323.
  • Ashworth, P., Davis, L. G., & Spriggs, L. S. (1996). Personal change resulting from porcelain veneer treatment to improve the appearance of the teeth: Psychology, Health & Medicine Vol 1(1) Feb 1996, 57-69.
  • Atkinson, P. T. (1998). Refractory adult periodontitis: The influence of repressive coping style. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
  • Ayo-Yusuf, O. A., Reddy, P. S., van Wyk, P. J., & van den Borne, B. W. (2007). Household smoking as a risk indicator for caries in adolescents' permanent teeth: Journal of Adolescent Health Vol 41(3) Sep 2007, 309-311.
  • Azerad, J., & Woda, A. (1977). Sensation evoked by bipolar interpulpal stimulation in man: Pain Vol 4(2) Oct 1977, 145-152.
  • Bankole, O. O., Denloye, O. O., Aderinokun, G. A., & Badejo, C. O. (2002). Developing photo-posters for health education on perceived teething problems in Nigeria: International Quarterly of Community Health Education Vol 21(4) 2002, 369-375.
  • Barkla, D. H. (1963). Congenital absence and fusion in the deciduous dentition in mongols: Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 7(2) 1963, 102-106.
  • Bassuk, E., & Schoonover, S. (1978). Rampant dental caries in the treatment of depression: Journal of Clinical Psychiatry Vol 39(2) Feb 1978, 163-165.
  • Baust, J. A. (1976). Tooth eruption/cognitive development/arithmetic computation: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Baykan, Z., Sahin, F., Beyazova, U., Ozcakar, B., & Baykan, A. (2004). Experience of Turkish parents about their infants' teething: Child: Care, Health and Development Vol 30(4) Jul 2004, 331-336.
  • Beauchamp, G. (1989). Canine tooth size variability in primates: Folia Primatologica Vol 52(3-4) 1989, 148-155.
  • Bekhit, S. S. A. (2008). "The outcome of a preventive dental care programme on the prevalence of localized aggressive periodontitis in Down's Syndrome (DS) individuals": Comment: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research Vol 52(1) Jan 2008, 89.
  • Beli, N., & Bentham, P. (1998). Nature and extent of dental pathology and complications arising in patients receiving ECT: Psychiatric Bulletin Vol 22(9) Sep 1998, 562-565.
  • Bell, J., Civil, C. R., Townsend, G. C., & Brown, R. H. (1989). The prevalence of taurodontism in Down's syndrome: Journal of Mental Deficiency Research Vol 33(6) Dec 1989, 467-476.
  • Bennett, P., Williams, D., Chestnutt, I., Hood, K., & Lowe, R. (2007). A reaction-time study of social, health, and personal attributions in relation to fluorosed teeth: International Journal of Testing Vol 7(4) 2007, 75-86.
  • Bennett, P., Williams, D., Chestnutt, I., Hood, K., & Lowe, R. (2008). A reaction-time study of social, health, and personal attributions in relation to fluorosed teeth: Psychology, Health & Medicine Vol 13(1) Jan 2008, 75-86.
  • Bergdahl, M., Habib, R., Bergdahl, J., Nyberg, L., & Nilsson, L.-G. (2007). Natural teeth and cognitive function in humans: Scandinavian Journal of Psychology Vol 48(6) Dec 2007, 557-565.
  • Berger, R. L., Byers, M. R., & Calkins, D. F. (1983). Dental nerve regeneration in rats: I. Electrophysiological studies of molar sensory deficit and recovery: Pain Vol 15(4) Apr 1983, 345-357.
  • Berkhout, A. M. (1996). Disabilities in nutrition behaviour of nursing home patients: Tijdschrift voor Gerontologie en Geriatrie Vol 27(2) Apr 1996, 62-66.
  • Bichajian, C. (1985). The effects of stress and malocclusion on masseter EMG activity: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Bird, J. A. (1987). Relationship between physical maturity, as measured by maturation of teeth, and academic competence: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Blomberg, S., & Lindquist, L. W. (1983). Psychological reactions to edentulousness and treatment with jawbone-anchored bridges: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Vol 68(4) Oct 1983, 251-262.
  • Blount, R. L. (1986). Promoting maintenance of effective toothbrushing by Head Start school children: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Blount, R. L., & Stokes, T. F. (1984). Contingent public posting of photographs to reinforce dental hygiene: Promoting effective toothbrushing by elementary school children: Behavior Modification Vol 8(1) Jan 1984, 79-92.
  • Boissonade, F. M., & Matthews, B. (1993). Responses of trigeminal brain stem neurons and the digastric muscle to tooth-pulp stimulation in awake cats: Journal of Neurophysiology Vol 69(1) Jan 1993, 174-186.
  • Bout, N., & Thierry, B. (2006). Peaceful meaning for the silent bared-teeth displays of mandrills: International Journal of Primatology Vol 26(6) Apr 2006, 1215-1228.
  • Bracha, H. S. (2004). Can premorbid episodes of diminished vagal tone be detected via histological markers in patients with PTSD? : International Journal of Psychophysiology Vol 51(2) Jan 2004, 127-133.
  • Brankack, J., & Buzsaki, G. (1986). Hippocampal responses evoked by tooth pulp and acoustic stimulation: Depth profiles and effect of behavior: Brain Research Vol 378(2) Jul 1986, 303-314.
  • Breivik, T., Stephan, M., Brabant, G. E., Straub, R. H., Pabst, R., & von Horsten, S. (2002). Postnatal lipopolysaccharide-induced illness predisposes to peridontal disease in adulthood: Brain, Behavior, and Immunity Vol 16(4) Aug 2002, 421-438.
  • Brook, U., Heim, M., & Alkalai, Y. (1996). Attitude, knowledge and habits of high school pupils in Israel regarding oral health: Patient Education and Counseling Vol 27(2) Mar 1996, 171-175.
  • Brown, L. F. (1994). Research in dental health education and health promotion: A review of the literature: Health Education Quarterly Vol 21(1) Spr 1994, 83-102.
  • Callaghan, A., Kendall, G., Lock, C., Mahony, A., Payne, J., Verrier, L., et al. (2005). Association between pacifier use and breast-feeding, sudden infant death syndrome, infection and dental malocclusion: International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare Vol 3(6) Jul 2005, 147-167.
  • Carranza, J., Alarcos, S., Sanchez-Prieto, C. B., Valencia, J., & Mateos, C. (2004). Disposable-soma senescence mediated by sexual selection in an ungulate: Nature Vol 432(7014) Nov 2004, 215-218.
  • Castro, A., & Linares, R. (1998). Is the oral hygiene suitable in Down syndrome people? : Italian Journal of Intellective Impairment Vol 11(2) Dec 1998, 147-149.
  • Chang, D. J., Fricke, J. R., Bird, S. R., Bohidar, N. R., Dobbins, T. W., & Geba, G. P. (2001). Rofecoxib versus codeine/acetaminophen in postoperative dental pain: A double-blind, randomized, placebo- and active comparator-controlled clinical trial: Clinical Therapeutics: The International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Drug Therapy Vol 23(9) Sep 2001, 1446-1455.
  • Chapman, C. R., Chen, A. C., & Bonica, J. J. (1977). Effects of intrasegmental electrical acupuncture on dental pain: Evaluation by threshold estimation and sensory decision theory: Pain Vol 3(3) Jun 1977, 213-227.
  • Chatrian, G. E., Canfield, R. C., Knauss, T. A., & Lettich, E. (1975). Cerebral responses of electrical tooth pulp stimulation in man: An objective correlate of acute experimental pain: Neurology Vol 25(8) Aug 1975, 745-757.
  • Chatrian, G. E., & et al. (1982). Electrical stimulation of tooth pulp in humans: II. Qualities of sensations: Pain Vol 14(3) Nov 1982, 233-246.
  • Chattipakorn, S., Chattipakorn, N., Light, A. R., Narhi, M., & Maixner, W. (2005). Comparison of Fos Expression Within the Ferret's Spinal Trigeminal Nuclear Complex Evoked by Electrical or Noxious-Thermal Pulpal Stimulation: The Journal of Pain Vol 6(9) Sep 2005, 569-580.
  • Chattipakorn, S. C., Sigurdsson, A., Light, A. R., Narhi, M., & Maixner, W. (2002). Trigeminal c-Fos expression and behavioral responses to pulpal inflammation in ferrets: Pain Vol 99(1-2) Sep 2002, 61-69.
  • Chen, M.-S., & Hunter, P. (1996). Oral health and quality of life in New Zealand: A social perspective: Social Science & Medicine Vol 43(8) Oct 1996, 1213-1222.
  • Chiang, C. Y., Park, S. J., Kwan, C. L., Hu, J. W., & Sessle, B. J. (1998). NMDA receptor mechanisms contribute to neuroplasticity induced in caudalis nociceptive neurons by tooth pulp stimulation: Journal of Neurophysiology Vol 80(5) Nov 1998, 2621-2631.
  • Chidiac, J.-J., Rifai, K., Hawwa, N. N., Massaad, C. A., Jurjus, A. R., Jabbur, S. J., et al. (2002). Nociceptive behaviour induced by dental application of irritants to rat incisors: A new model for tooth inflammatory pain: European Journal of Pain Vol 6(1) 2002, 55-67.
  • Chudler, E. H., Dong, W. K., & Kawakami, Y. (1985). Tooth pulp-evoked potentials in the monkey: Cortical surface and intracortical distribution: Pain Vol 22(3) Jul 1985, 221-233.
  • Chudler, E. H., Dong, W. K., & Kawakami, Y. (1986). Cortical nociceptive responses and behavioral correlates in the monkey: Brain Research Vol 397(1) Nov 1986, 47-60.
  • Claverie, B., & Dupuis, V. (1989). Psychobiological approach to the integration of complete dentures in toothless patients: Psychologie Medicale Vol 21(1) Jan 1989, 85-87.
  • Cornelius, J. R., Clark, D. B., Weyant, R., Bretz, W., Corby, P., Mezzich, A., et al. (2004). Dental abnormalities in children of fathers with substance use disorders: Addictive Behaviors Vol 29(5) Jul 2004, 979-982.
  • Crowson, C. J. (1974). Dental caries: An early indicator of health status: Journal of the American College Health Association Vol 23(2) Dec 1974, 176-180.
  • Cruccu, G., Fornarelli, M., Inghilleri, M., & Manfredi, M. (1983). The limits of tooth pulp evoked potentials for pain quantitation: Physiology & Behavior Vol 31(3) Sep 1983, 339-343.
  • Cullen-Erickson, M. (1994). Parents' experiences in assisting a person with an intellectual disability to achieve optimal dental health: Australian Occupational Therapy Journal Vol 41(4) Dec 1994, 163-172.
  • Cusick, C. G., Wall, J. T., & Kaas, J. H. (1986). Representations of the face, teeth and oral cavity in areas 3b and 1 of somatosensory cortex in squirrel monkeys: Brain Research Vol 370(2) Apr 1986, 359-364.
  • Czako, E. (2002). Brief reviews of Zemeckis' Castaway and Salvatores' Teeth: Giornale Storico di Psicologia Dinamica Vol 26(51) Apr 2002, 105-112.
  • Dibennardo, R. (1973). Prenatal stress, developmental noise, and postnatal risk: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Dickenson, A. H., Hellon, R. F., & Woolf, C. J. (1981). Tooth pulp input to the spinal trigeminal nucleus: A comparison of inhibitions following segmental and raphe magnus stimulation: Brain Research Vol 214(1) Jun 1981, 73-87.
  • Dickenson, A. J. (1993). Oral self-mutilation associated with the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine Vol 10(2) Jun 1993, 85-86.
  • Dodson, T. B., Caruso, P. A., & Nielsen, G. P. (2004). Case 2-2004: A 32-Year-Old Man with Pain and Swelling of the Jaw: New England Journal of Medicine Vol 350(3) Jan 2004, 267-275.
  • Dunne, S. M., & Hannington-Kiff, J. G. (1993). The use of topical guanethidine in the relief of dentine hypersensitivity: A controlled study: Pain Vol 54(2) Aug 1993, 165-168.
  • Dworkin, B. R., Lee, M. H., Zaretsky, H. H., & Berkeley, H. A. (1977). A precision tooth-pulp stimulation technique for the assessment of pain threshold: Behavior Research Methods & Instrumentation Vol 9(5) Oct 1977, 463-465.
  • Edwards, J. G. (1987). An unusual case of nicotine dependence: Psychological Medicine Vol 17(3) Aug 1987, 779-781.
  • Edwards, R. R., Fillingim, R. B., Yamauchi, S., Sigurdsson, A., Bunting, S., Mohorn, S. G., et al. (1999). Effects of gender and acute dental pain on thermal pain responses: Clinical Journal of Pain Vol 15(3) Sep 1999, 233-237.
  • Efe, E., Sarvan, S., & Kukulu, K. (2007). Self-reported knowledge and behaviors related to oral and dental health in Turkish children: Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing Vol 30(4) Oct 2007, 133-146.
  • Evans, R. I., Rozelle, R. M., Noblitt, R., & Williams, D. L. (1975). Explicit and implicit persuasive communications over time to initiate and maintain behavior change: New perspective utilizing a real-life dental hygiene situation: Journal of Applied Social Psychology Vol 5(2) Apr-Jun 1975, 150-156.
  • Fernandes de Lima, V. M., & et al. (1982). Electrical stimulation of tooth pulp in humans: I. Relationships among physical stimulus intensities, psychological magnitude estimates and cerebral evoked potentials: Pain Vol 14(3) Nov 1982, 207-232.
  • Fernandez Parra, A., & Gil Roales-Nieto, J. (1988). Health education and behavioral intervention in the development of dental hygiene habits (toothbrushing) in the elementary school: Analisis y Modificacion de Conducta Vol 14(41) 1988, 383-399.
  • Filho, V. G. (1984). Dental alterations during lithium therapy: Jornal Brasileiro de Psiquiatria Vol 33(6) Dec 1984, 442-446.
  • Fleagle, J. G., Kay, R. F., & Simons, E. L. (1980). Sexual dimorphism in early anthropoids: Nature Vol 287(5780) Sep 1980, 328-330.
  • Fors, U., & et al. (1984). Relation between intradental nerve activity and estimated pain in man: A mathematical model: Pain Vol 18(4) Apr 1984, 397-408.
  • Fransman, D. (2006). Can removal of back teeth contribute to chronic earwax obstruction? : British Journal of Learning Disabilities Vol 34(1) Mar 2006, 36-41.
  • Franzen, O. G., & Ahlquist, M. L. (1989). The intensive aspect of information processing in the intradental A-delta system in man: A psychophysiological analysis of sharp dental pain: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 33(1) May 1989, 1-11.
  • Fraser, D., & Thompson, B. K. (1991). Armed sibling rivalry among suckling piglets: Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Vol 29(1) Aug 1991, 9-15.
  • Fried, K., Lillesaar, C., Sime, W., Kaukua, N., & Patarroyo, M. (2007). Target finding of pain nerve fibers: Neural growth mechanisms in the tooth pulp: Physiology & Behavior Vol 92(1-2) Sep 2007, 40-45.
  • Gear, R. W., Miaskowski, C., Gordon, N. C., Paul, S. M., Heller, P. H., & Levine, J. D. (2000). Action of naloxone on gender-dependent analgesic and antianalgesic effects of nalbuphine in humans: The Journal of Pain Vol 1(2) Sum 2000, 122-127.
  • Gift, H. C., Reisine, S. T., & Larach, D. C. (1992). The social impact of dental problems and visits: American Journal of Public Health Vol 82(12) Dec 1992, 1663-1668.
  • Gift, H. C., Reisine, S. T., & Larach, D. C. (1993). "The social impact of dental problems and visits": Erratum: American Journal of Public Health Vol 83(6) Jun 1993, 816.
  • Gilbert, G. H., Shelton, B. J., Chavers, L. S., & Bradford, E. H., Jr. (2003). The paradox of dental need in a population-based study of dentate adults: Medical Care Vol 41(1) Jan 2003, 119-134.
  • Gillberg, C., Noren, J. G., Wahlstrom, J., & Rasmussen, P. (1982). Heavy metals and neuropsychiatric disorders in six-year-old children: Aspects of dental lead and cadmium: Acta Paedopsychiatrica: International Journal of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Vol 48(5) Oct 1982, 253-263.
  • Gingher, M. C. (1990). Functional and psychosocial factors contributing to oral health status in the elderly: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Glenn, J. (1978). Tooth symbolism in Herodotus: Psychoanalytic Review Vol 65(3) Fal 1978, 471-473.
  • Godfrey, L. R., Samonds, K. E., Jungers, W. L., & Sutherland, M. R. (2003). Dental development and primate life histories. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • Golden, S. G. (1972). Aggression and locus of control as predictors of dental anxiety and behavior: Dissertation Abstracts International Vol.
  • Goodwin, W. C., & Erickson, M. T. (1973). Developmental problems and dental morphology: American Journal of Mental Deficiency Vol 78(2) Sep 1973, 199-204.
  • Gracely, R. H., Dubner, R., & McGrath, P. A. (1979). Narcotic analgesia: Fentanyl reduces the intensity but not the unpleasantness of painful tooth pulp sensations: Science Vol 203(4386) Mar 1979, 1261-1263.
  • Green, L. W. (1983). The relationship of stress with periodontal disease and psychopathology: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Greene, P., & Chisick, M. C. (1995). Child abuse/neglect and the oral health of children's primary dentition: Military Medicine Vol 160(6) Jun 1995, 290-293.
  • Griep, M. I., Mets, T. F., Collys, K., Vogelaere, P., Laska, M., & Massart, D. L. (1997). Odour perception in relation to age, general health, anthropometry and dental state: Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics Vol 25(3) Nov-Dec 1997, 263-275.
  • Grosofsky, A., Adkins, S., Bastholm, R., Meyer, L., Krueger, L., Meyer, J., et al. (2003). Tooth color: Effects on judgments of attractiveness and age: Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol 96(1) Feb 2003, 43-48.
  • Grushka, M., & Sessle, B. J. (1984). Applicability of the McGill Pain Questionnaire to the differentiation of "toothache" pain: Pain Vol 19(1) May 1984, 49-57.
  • Ha, H., Wu, R. S., Contreras, R. A., & Tan, E.-c. (1978). Measurement of pain threshold by electrical stimulation of tooth pulp afferents in the monkey: Experimental Neurology Vol 61(2) Sep 1978, 260-269.
  • Hagerman, H. A., & Lauver, P. J. (1987). Changing children's toothbrushing behavior through brief Adlerian parent education: Individual Psychology: Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research & Practice Vol 43(1) Mar 1987, 91-100.
  • Hampf, G., Ekholm, A., Salo, T., Ylipaavalniemi, P., & et al. (1987). Pain in oral galvanism: Pain Vol 29(3) Jun 1987, 301-311.
  • Han, S.-H., Yoon, S.-H., Cho, Y.-W., Kim, C.-J., & Min, B.-I. (1999). Inhibitory effects of electroacupuncture on stress responses evoked by tooth-pulp stimulation in rats: Physiology & Behavior Vol 66(2) Apr 1999, 217-222.
  • Harila, V., Heikkinen, T., & Alvesalo, L. (2003). Deciduous tooth crown size in prematurely born children: Early Human Development Vol 75(1-2) Dec 2003, 9-20.
  • Harkins, S. W., & Chapman, C. R. (1976). Detection and decision factors in pain perception in young and elderly men: Pain Vol 2(3) Sep 1976, 253-264.
  • Harkins, S. W., & Chapman, C. R. (1977). The perception of induced dental pain in young and elderly women: Journal of Gerontology Vol 32(4) Jul 1977, 428-435.
  • Harkins, S. W., & Chapman, C. R. (1978). Cerebral evoked potentials to noxious dental stimulation: Relationship to subjective pain report: Psychophysiology Vol 15(3) May 1978, 248-252.
  • Harrison, P. L. (1980). Mercer's Adaptive Behavior Inventory, the McCarthy scales, and dental development as predictors of first grade achievement: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Harwood, P., & Newton, T. (1995). Dental aspects of bulimia nervosa: Implications for the health care team: European Eating Disorders Review Vol 3(2) Jun 1995, 93-102.
  • Hassel, A. J., Koke, U., Drechsel, A., Kunz, C., & Rammelsberg, P. (2005). Oral health related quality of life in elderly: Zeitschrift fur Gerontologie und Geriatrie Vol 38(5) Oct 2005, 342-346.
  • Hay, M., Rue, J., Sansac, C., Brunel, G., & Prunier, A. (2004). Long-term detrimental effects of tooth clipping or grinding in piglets: A histological approach: Animal Welfare Vol 13(1) Feb 2004, 27-32.
  • Hayes, V. J., Freedman, L., & Oxnard, C. E. (1996). Dental sexual dimorphism and morphology in African Colobus monkeys as related to diet: International Journal of Primatology Vol 17(5) Oct 1996, 725-757.
  • Heng, C. K., Badner, V. M., & Freeman, K. D. (2006). Relationship of Cigarette Smoking to Dental Caries in a Population of Female Inmates: Journal of Correctional Health Care Vol 12(3) Jul 2006, 164-174.
  • Hernandez, M. A. C., Lopez, M. H., & Herrera, H. O. (2004). Concept organization of the tooth decay process constructed by first year dentistry students: Revista Intercontinental de Psicologia y Educacion Vol 6(2) 2004, 11-23.
  • Hiroshima, K., Maeda, T., Hanada, K., & Wakisaka, S. (2001). Temporal and spatial distribution of Fos protein in the parabrachial nucleus neurons during experimental tooth movement of the rat molar: Brain Research Vol 908(2) Jul 2001, 161-173.
  • Holland, G. R. (2001). Management of dental pain. Carol Stream, IL: Quintessence Publishing Co.
  • Honma, F., Kimura, M., Endo, S., Ohtsu, M., Okada, T., & Satoh, T. (2006). Oral cenesthopathy examined by Rorschach test: Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences Vol 60(2) Apr 2006, 154-159.
  • Horner, R. D., & Keilitz, I. (1975). Training mentally retarded adolescents to brush their teeth: Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis Vol 8(3) Fal 1975, 301-309.
  • Hsuchou, H., Ho, Y.-J., Shui, H.-A., Tai, M.-Y., Chen, K.-H., & Tsai, Y.-F. (2002). Effects of incisor-cutting on muricidal behavior induced by olfactory bulbectomy in rats: Physiology & Behavior Vol 76(4-5) Aug 2002, 669-675.
  • Huff, M., Kinion, E., Kendra, M. A., & Klecan, T. (2006). Self-Esteem: A Hidden Concern in Oral Health: Journal of Community Health Nursing Vol 23(4) 2006, 245-255.
  • Ichikawa, H., & Sugimoto, T. (2003). Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide-immunoreactive nerve fibers in rat and human tooth pulps: Brain Research Vol 980(2) Aug 2003, 288-292.
  • Jacome, D. E. (2001). Dracula's teeth syndrome: Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain Vol 41(9) Oct 2001, 892-894.
  • Jann, G. R., Ward, M. M., & Jann, H. W. (1964). A longitudinal study of articulation, deglutition, and malocclusion: Journal of Speech & Hearing Disorders 829(4) 1964, 424-435.
  • Jantsch, H. H. F., Kemppainen, P., Ringler, R., Handwerker, H. O., & Forster, C. (2005). Cortical representation of experimental tooth pain in humans: Pain Vol 118(3) Dec 2005, 390-399.
  • Jastreboff, P. J., Keller, O., & Zielinski, K. (1977). Tooth pulp stimulation as an unconditioned stimulus in defensive instrumental conditioning: Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis Vol 37(6) 1977, 351-361.
  • Johnsen, S. E., & Trulsson, M. (2003). Receptive Field Properties of Human Periodontal Afferents Responding to Loading of Premolar and Molar Teeth: Journal of Neurophysiology Vol 89(3) Mar 2003, 1478-1487.
  • Juhl, G. I., Jensen, T. S., Norholt, S. E., & Svensson, P. (2008). Central sensitization phenomena after third molar surgery: A quantitative sensory testing study: European Journal of Pain Vol 12(1) Jan 2008, 116-127.
  • Jurek, G. H., & Reid, W. H. (1993). Oral health of state hospital patients: Hospital & Community Psychiatry Vol 44(9) Sep 1993, 889-891.
  • Jurek, G. H., & Reid, W. H. (1994). Oral health of institutionalized individuals with mental retardation: American Journal on Mental Retardation Vol 98(5) Mar 1994, 656-660.
  • Kato, T., Usami, T., Noda, Y., Hasegawa, M., & et al. (1997). The effect of the loss of molar teeth on spatial memory and acetylcholine release from the parietal cortex in aged rats: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 83(1-2) Feb 1997, 239-242.
  • Katz, R. V. (1977). An epidemiologic study of the relationship between various states of occlusion, associated psychosocial factors and the pathological conditions of dental caries and periodontal disease: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Keller, O., Butkhuzi, S. M., Vyklicky, L., & Brozek, G. (1974). Cortical responses evoked by stimulation of tooth pulp afferents in the cat: Physiologia Bohemoslovaca Vol 23(1) 1974, 45-53.
  • Kemppainen, P., Forster, C., & Handwerker, H. O. (2001). The importance of stimulus site and intensity in differences of pain-induced vascular reflexes in human orofacial regions: Pain Vol 91(3) Apr 2001, 331-338.
  • Kenealy, P., Frude, N., & Shaw, W. (1989). An evaluation of the psychological and social effects of malocclusion: Some implications for dental policy making: Social Science & Medicine Vol 28(6) 1989, 583-591.
  • Kent, G., & Johns, R. (1993). Psychological effects of permanently implanted false teeth: A 2-year follow-up and comparison with dentate patients: Psychology & Health Vol 8(2-3) Apr 1993, 213-222.
  • Kim, J.-M., Stewart, R., Prince, M., Kim, S.-W., Yang, S.-J., Shin, I.-S., et al. (2007). Dental health, nutritional status and recent-onset dementia in a Korean community population: International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry Vol 22(9) Sep 2007, 850-855.
  • King, T. M., & Plack, W. F. (1983). Perimolysis in a patient diagnosed with anorexia nervosa: Case report: Military Medicine Vol 148(8) Aug 1983, 676-677.
  • Kirk, L. (1975). Estimating the Ages of Children in Nonliterate Populations: A Field Method: Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology Vol 6(2) Jun 1975, 238-249.
  • Knapp, L. G. (1991). Effects of type of value appealed to and valence of appeal on children's dental health behavior: Journal of Pediatric Psychology Vol 16(6) Dec 1991, 675-686.
  • Kohlschutter, A. (1995). Epilepsy, dementia and yellow teeth: Some remarks on multiorgan involvement in neurogenetic disorders Commentary to Musumeci's paper (Brain Dev 1995; 17: 133-8): Brain & Development Vol 17(2) Mar-Apr 1995, 142-143.
  • Kramer, K. D., & Geller, E. S. (1987). Community dental health promotion for children: Integrating applied behavior analysis and public health: Education & Treatment of Children Vol 10(1) Feb 1987, 58-66.
  • Krause-Parello, C. A. (2005). Tooth avulsion in the school setting: The Journal of School Nursing Vol 21(5) Oct 2005, 279-282.
  • Kressin, N. R., Spiro, A., III, Bosse, R., & Garcia, R. I. (1999). Personality traits and oral self-care behaviors: Longitudinal findings from the Normative Aging Study: Psychology & Health Vol 14(1) Jan 1999, 71-85.
  • Laiho, M., Honkala, E., & Nyyssonen, V. (1991). Factors behind oral health behaviour: Health Education Research Vol 6(4) Dec 1991, 455-463.
  • Laurence, B., Woods, D., George, D., Onyekwere, O., Katz, R., Lanzkron, S., et al. (2006). Self-perceived Loss of Control and Untreated Dental Decay in African American Adults With and Without Sickle Cell Disease: Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved Vol 17(3) Aug 2006, 641-651.
  • Lee, M. H., Zaretsky, H. H., & McMeniman, M. (1978). Acupuncture analgesia: Assessment using electric tooth-pulp stimulation. Preliminary report: New York State Journal of Medicine Vol 78(11) Sep 1978, 1687-1690.
  • Lima, V. F. (1981). Relationships among intensities of electrical stimulation to tooth pulp, subjective estimates of sensory magnitude and objective measures of cerebral evoked potentials: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Linden, R. W. (1975). Touch thresholds of vital and nonvital human teeth: Experimental Neurology Vol 48(2) Aug 1975, 387-390.
  • Lucker, G. W., Graber, L. W., & Pietromonaco, P. (1981). The importance of dentofacial appearance in facial esthetics: A signal detection approach: Basic and Applied Social Psychology Vol 2(4) Dec 1981, 261-274.
  • Lukacs, J. R. (1996). Sex differences in dental caries rates with the origin of agriculture in South Asia: Current Anthropology Vol 37(1) Feb 1996, 147-153.
  • Macfarlane, T. V., Blinkhorn, A. S., Davies, R. M., Ryan, P., Worthington, H. V., & Macfarlane, G. J. (2002). Orofacial pain: Just another chronic pain? Results from a population-based survey: Pain Vol 99(3) Oct 2002, 453-458.
  • Marbach, J. (1997). Potential mechanisms of phantom tooth pain. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
  • Marbach, J. J., & Raphael, K. G. (2000). Phantom tooth pain: A new look at an old dilemma: Pain Medicine Vol 1(1) Mar 2000, 68-77.
  • Marino, R. V., Bomze, K., Scholl, T. O., & Anhalt, H. (1989). Nursing bottle caries: Characteristics of children at risk: Clinical Pediatrics Vol 28(3) Mar 1989, 129-131.
  • Martinez, B. M., Sanchez-Balmisa, C., & Parga, M. X. (2004). Behavioral intervention in dental health: A preliminary result of a school program: Analisis y Modificacion de Conducta Vol 30(129) 2004, 51-69.
  • Masalin, K., & Murtomaa, H. (1992). Work-related behavioral and dental risk factors among confectionery workers: Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health Vol 18(6) Dec 1992, 388-392.
  • Matsumoto, N., Yahata, F., Kawarada, K., Kamata, K.-i., & et al. (1994). Tooth pulp stimulation induces c-fos expression in the lateral habenular nucleus of the cat: Neuroreport: An International Journal for the Rapid Communication of Research in Neuroscience Vol 5(17) Nov 1994, 2397-2400.
  • Matthews, B., & Searle, B. N. (1976). Electrical stimulation of teeth: Pain Vol 2(3) Sep 1976, 245-251.
  • Maupome, G., Borges, A., Ramirez, L. E., & Diez-de-Bonilla, J. (1999). Perceptions of tooth loss and periodontal problems in an independent elderly population: Content-analysis of interview discourse: Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology Vol 14(1) Mar 1999, 43-63.
  • McCall, W. V. (1991). Exacerbation of mental illness by dental disease: Psychosomatics: Journal of Consultation Liaison Psychiatry Vol 32(1) Win 1991, 114-115.
  • McGrath, P. A. (1980). Is tooth pulp an exclusive pain system? Investigations of (a) reflexes as physiological correlates of pain sensation and of (b) the role of endogenous opiate-like systems in analgesia: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • McGrath, P. A., Gracely, R. H., Dubner, R., & Heft, M. W. (1983). Non-pain and pain sensations evoked by tooth pulp stimulation: Pain Vol 15(4) Apr 1983, 377-388.
  • McGraw, W. S., Plavcan, J. M., & Adachi-Kanazawa, K. (2002). Adult female Cercopithecus diana employ canine teeth to kill another adult female C. diana: International Journal of Primatology Vol 23(6) Dec 2002, 1301-1308.
  • Mendell, D. A., & Logemann, J. A. (2001). Bulimia and swallowing: Cause for concern: International Journal of Eating Disorders Vol 30(3) Nov 2001, 252-258.
  • Mengel, M. K. C., Jyvasjarvi, E., & Kniffki, K. D. (1996). Evidence for slowly conducting afferent fibres innervating both tooth pulp and periodontal ligament in the cat: Pain Vol 65(2-3) May-Jun 1996, 181-188.
  • Mengel, M. K. C., Stiefenhofer, A. E., Jyvasjarvi, E., & Kniffki, K.-D. (1993). Pain sensation during cold stimulation of the teeth: Differential reflection of A!d and C fibre activity? : Pain Vol 55(2) Nov 1993, 159-169.
  • Mester, R. (1982). The psychodynamics of the dental pathology of chronic schizophrenic patients: Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences Vol 19(4) 1982, 255-261.
  • Milosevic, A. (2006). The impact of anorexia and bulimia nervosa on oral and dental health. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
  • Miyahara, T., Hagiya, N., Ohyama, T., & Nakamura, Y. (1996). Modulation of human soleus H reflex in association with voluntary clenching of the teeth. 700 R: Journal of Neurophysiology Vol 76(3) Sep 1996, 2033-2041.
  • Miyamoto, J. J., Honda, M., Saito, D. N., Okada, T., Ono, T., Ohyama, K., et al. (2006). The Representation of the Human Oral Area in the Somatosensory Cortex: A Functional MRI Study: Cerebral Cortex Vol 16(5) May 2006, 669-675.
  • M'Kirera, F., & Ungar, P. S. (2003). Occlusal Relief Changes With Molar Wear in Pan troglodytes troglodytes and Gorilla gorilla gorilla: American Journal of Primatology Vol 60(2) Jun 2003, 31-41.
  • Montecchi, P. P., Custureri, V., Polimeni, A., Cordaro, M., Costa, L., Marinucci, S., et al. (2003). Oral manifestations in a group of young patients with anorexia nervosa: Eating and Weight Disorders Vol 8(2) Jun 2003, 164-167.
  • Moroz, B. T., Ignatov, Y. D., & Kalinin, V. I. (1991). Use of tramadol hydrochloride in therapeutic operative dentistry: A preclinical investigation: Current Therapeutic Research Vol 49(3) Mar 1991, 367-370.
  • Moroz, B. T., Ignatov, Y. D., & Kalinin, V. I. (1991). Use of tramadol hydrochloride in therapeutic operative dentistry: Clinical investigation: Current Therapeutic Research Vol 49(3) Mar 1991, 371-375.
  • Morse, D. R., Koren, L. Z., Esposito, J. V., Goldberg, J. M., & et al. (1986). Asymptomatic teeth with necrotic pulps and associated periapical radiolucencies: Relationship of flare-ups to endodontic instrumentation, antibiotic usage and stress in three separate practices at three different time periods: I. 1963-1970: International Journal of Psychosomatics Vol 33(1) 1986, 5-17.
  • Morse, D. R., Koren, L. Z., Esposito, J. V., Goldberg, J. M., & et al. (1986). Asymptomatic teeth with necrotic pulps and associated periapical radiolucencies: Relationship of flare-ups to endodontic instrumentation, antibiotic usage and stress in three separate practices at three different time periods: II. 1978-1983: International Journal of Psychosomatics Vol 33(1) 1986, 18-30.
  • Moukhtar, L. (1996). The teeth, biting and vagina dentata: Psychiatria Hungarica Vol 11(6) Dec 1996, 657-660.
  • Muller, F., & Nitschke, I. (2005). Oral health, dental state and nutrition in older adults: Zeitschrift fur Gerontologie und Geriatrie Vol 38(5) Oct 2005, 334-341.
  • Musumeci, S. A., Elia, M., Ferri, R., Romano, C., Scuderi, C., & Del Gracco, S. (1995). A further family with epilepsy, dementia and yellow teeth: The Kohlschutter syndrome: Brain & Development Vol 17(2) Mar-Apr 1995, 133-138.
  • Naftel, J. P., Qian, X.-B., & Bernanke, J. M. (1994). Effects of postnatal anti-nerve growth factor serum exposure on development of apical nerves of the rat molar: Developmental Brain Research Vol 80(1-2) Jul 1994, 54-62.
  • Nalcaci, R., Erdemir, E. O., & Baran, I. (2007). Evaluation of the oral health status of the people aged 65 years and over living in near rural district of middle Anatolia, Turkey: Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics Vol 45(1) Jul-Aug 2007, 55-64.
  • Navarro, V., Adam, C., Petitmengin, C., & Baulac, M. (2006). Toothbrush-Thinking Seizures: Epilepsia Vol 47(11) Nov 2006, 1971-1973.
  • Newton, J. T., & Travess, H. C. (2000). Oral complications: European Eating Disorders Review Vol 8(2) Mar 2000, 83-87.
  • Nord, S. G. (1976). Electrical stimulation of the tooth pulp in the study of pain: Brain Research Bulletin Vol 1(2) Mar-Apr 1976, 251-254.
  • Nyandindi, U., Milen, A., Palin-Palokas, T., & Robison, V. (1996). Impact of oral health education on primary school children before and after teachers' training in Tanzania: Health Promotion International Vol 11(3) Sep 1996, 193-201.
  • Ogunbodede, E. O., Rudolph, M. J., Tsotsi, N. M., Lewis, H. A., & Iloya, J. I. (1999). An oral health promotion module for the primary health care nursing course in Acornhoek, South Africa: Public Health Nursing Vol 16(5) Oct 1999, 351-358.
  • Okoro, C. A., Balluz, L. S., Eke, P. I., Ajani, U. A., Strine, T. W., Town, M., et al. (2005). Tooth Loss and Heart Disease: Findings from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System: American Journal of Preventive Medicine Vol 29(5,Suppl1) Dec 2005, 50-56.
  • Olgart, L., Hokfelt, T., Nilsson, G., & Pernow, B. (1977). Localization of substance P-like immunoreactivity in nerves in the tooth pulp: Pain Vol 4(2) Oct 1977, 153-159.
  • Onozuka, M., Watanabe, K., Fujita, M., Tomida, M., & Ozono, S. (2002). Changes in the septohippocampal cholinergic system following removal of molar teeth in the aged SAMP8 mouse: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 133(2) Jul 2002, 197-204.
  • Onozuka, M., Watanabe, K., Fujita, M., Tonosaki, K., & Saito, S. (2002). Evidence for involvement of glucocorticoid response in the hippocampal changes in aged molarless SAMP8 mice: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 131(1-2) Apr 2002, 125-130.
  • Onozuka, M., Watanabe, K., Mirbod, S. M., Ozono, S., Nishiyama, K., Karasawa, N., et al. (1999). Reduced mastication stimulates impairment of spatial memory and degeneration of hippocampal neurons in aged SAMP8 mice: Brain Research Vol 826(1) Apr 1999, 148-153.
  • Onozuka, M., Watanabe, K., Nagasaki, S., Jiang, Y., Ozono, S., Nishiyama, K., et al. (2000). Impairment of spatial memory and changes in astroglial responsiveness following loss of molar teeth in aged SAMP8 mice: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 108(2) Mar 2000, 145-155.
  • Orbak, R., Sezer, U., Dilsiz, A., Cicek, Y., & Orbak, Z. (2007). The relationship between teething and handedness: International Journal of Neuroscience Vol 117(3) Mar 2007, 401-408.
  • Orner, G. (1971). Congenitally absent permanent teeth among mongols and their sibs: Journal of Mental Deficiency Research Vol 15(4) Dec 1971, 292-302.
  • Palin-Palokas, T., Alvesalo, L., & Hausen, H. (1984). Occurrence of developmental morphological defects in permanent teeth of mentally retarded children: Journal of Mental Deficiency Research Vol 28(4) Dec 1984, 245-251.
  • Pan, R., & Oxnard, C. (2004). Craniodental Variation in the African Macaque, with Reference to Various Asian Species: Folia Primatologica Vol 75(6) Nov-Dec 2004, 355-375.
  • Panicker, J. N., Jyothi, B., & Sreekumar, K. P. (2007). Mid-brain molar tooth sign: Expanding the clinical spectrum: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry Vol 78(1) Jan 2007, 35.
  • Pertovaara, A., & Kemppainen, P. (1981). The influence of naloxone on dental pain threshold elevation produced by peripheral conditioning stimulation at high frequency: Brain Research Vol 215(1-2) Jun 1981, 426-429.
  • Pertovaara, A., Kemppainen, P., Johansson, G., & Karonen, S.-L. (1982). Dental analgesia produced by non-painful, low-frequency stimulation is not influenced by stress or reversed by naloxone: Pain Vol 13(4) Aug 1982, 379-384.
  • Peterson, A. C., & Kuipers, K. S. (1997). Understanding adolescence: Adolescent development and implications for the adolescent as a patient. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Human Growth and Development.
  • Philipp, E., Willershausen-Zonnchen, B., Hamm, G., & Pirke, K.-M. (1991). Oral and dental characteristics in bulimic and anorectic patients: International Journal of Eating Disorders Vol 10(4) Jul 1991, 423-431.
  • Reeves-Hoche, M. K. (1997). The association of mandibular molar loss and obstructive sleep apnea. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
  • Rehnig, H.-P., Brankack, J., & Klingberg, F. (1984). Cortical tooth pulp evoked potentials in freely moving rat: Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis Vol 44(5) 1984, 205-216.
  • Relethford, J. H., Coelho, A. M., & Lawrence, W. A. (1982). Age estimation from dental eruption in infant and juvenile baboons (Papio sp.): American Journal of Primatology Vol 2(2) 1982, 205-209.
  • Richards, J. C. N., & Guilford, J. P. (1930). A new type of lip key: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 13(5) Oct 1930, 469-472.
  • Riley, J. L., III. (2006). Behavioral Issues in Geriatric Dentistry. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
  • Riley, J. L., III, Gilbert, G. H., & Heft, M. W. (2002). Orofacial pain-related communication patterns: Sex and residential setting differences among community-dwelling adults: Pain Vol 99(3) Oct 2002, 415-422.
  • Roberts, M. W., & Tylenda, C. A. (1989). Dental aspects of anorexia and bulimia nervosa: Pediatrician Vol 16(3-4) 1989, 178-184.
  • Roos, A., Rydenhag, B., & Andersson, S. (1983). Activity in cortical cells after stimulation of tooth pulp afferents in the cat: Extracellular analysis: Pain Vol 16(1) May 1983, 61-72.
  • Roos, A., Rydenhag, B., & Andersson, S. (1983). Activity in cortical cells after stimulation of tooth pulp afferents in the cat: Intracellular analysis: Pain Vol 16(1) May 1983, 49-60.
  • Roos, A., Rydenhag, B., & Andersson, S. A. (1982). Cortical responses evoked by tooth pulp stimulation in the cat: Surface and intracortical responses: Pain Vol 14(3) Nov 1982, 247-265.
  • Ros, L. T. (2003). Pain mask in masked depression in the form of selective toothache--Own experience. Case report: Psychiatria Danubina Vol 15(1-2) Jun 2003, 29-31.
  • Rose, K. D., Walker, A., & Jacobs, L. L. (1981). Function of the mandibular tooth comb in living and extinct mammals: Nature Vol 289(5798) Feb 1981, 583-585.
  • Rosenstein, S. N. (1974). "Premature" infants: The relation of dental abnormalities to neurological and psychometric status at age two years: Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology Vol 16(2) Apr 1974, 158-162.
  • Salo, A. L., Shapiro, L. E., & Dewsbury, D. A. (1994). Comparison of nipple attachment and incisor growth among four species of voles (Microtus): Developmental Psychobiology Vol 27(5) Jul 1994, 317-330.
  • Sarrell, E. M., Horev, Z., Cohen, Z., & Cohen, H. A. (2005). Parents' and medical personnel's beliefs about infant teething: Patient Education and Counseling Vol 57(1) Apr 2005, 122-125.
  • Satoh, T., Yamada, S., Yokota, T., Ohshima, T., & et al. (1987). Modulation during sleep of the cat trigeminal neurons responding to tooth pulp stimulation: Physiology & Behavior Vol 39(3) 1987, 395-398.
  • Schneider, V. G., & Leyendecker, S. S. (2005). Correlations between Psychosocial Factors and Periodontal Disease - A Systematic Review of the Literature: Zeitschrift fur Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie Vol 51(3) 2005, 277-296.
  • Schoor, R. S., & Havrilla, J. (1986). Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis: Etiology and stress relationships: International Journal of Psychosomatics Vol 33(2) 1986, 35-40.
  • Schuz, B., Sniehotta, F. F., & Schwarzer, R. (2007). Stage-specific effects of an action control intervention on dental flossing: Health Education Research Vol 22(3) Jun 2007, 332-341.
  • Schwartz, G. T., Reid, D. J., Dean, M. C., & Zihlman, A. L. (2006). A faithful record of stressful life events preserved in the dental developmental record of a juvenile gorilla: International Journal of Primatology Vol 27(4) Aug 2006, 1201-1219.
  • Schwartz, G. T., Reid, D. J., Dean, M. C., & Zihlman, A. L. (2006). "A faithful record of stressful life events preserved in the dental developmental record of a juvenile gorilla": Erratum: International Journal of Primatology Vol 27(4) Aug 2006, 1221-1222.
  • Seltzer, S., Stoch, R., Marcus, R., & Jackson, E. (1982). Alteration of human pain thresholds by nutritional manipulation and {l}-tryptophan supplementation: Pain Vol 13(4) Aug 1982, 385-393.
  • Sharav, Y., Leviner, E., Tzukert, A., & McGrath, P. A. (1984). The spatial distribution, intensity and unpleasantness of acute dental pain: Pain Vol 20(4) Dec 1984, 363-370.
  • Shaw, W. C. (1989). Social implications of dentofacial deformities: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Sheng, L. L., Nishiyama, K., Honda, T., Sugiura, M., Yaginuma, H., & Sugiura, Y. (2000). Suppressive effects of Neiting acupuncture on toothache: An experimental analysis on Fos expression evoked by tooth pulp stimulation in the trigeminal subnucleus pars caudalis and the periaqueductal gray of rats: Neuroscience Research Vol 38(4) Dec 2000, 331-339.
  • Sherman, R. A., Jones, D. E. C., & Marbach, J. J. (1997). Mechanism-based assessment and management. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
  • Shuster, G., & Sherman, P. W. (1998). Tool use by naked mole-rats: Animal Cognition Vol 1(1) 1998, 71-74.
  • Simons, D. G., & Dommerholt, J. (2004). Myofascial Pain Syndromes- Trigger Points: Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain Vol 12(1) 2004, 57-60.
  • Sinusas, K., Coroso, J. G., Sopher, M. D., & Crabtree, B. F. (1992). Smokeless tobacco use and oral pathology in a professional baseball organization: The Journal of Family Practice Vol 34(6) Jun 1992, 713-718.
  • Smith, M., & et al. (1983). The effects of lead exposure on urban children: The Institute of Child Health/Southampton Study: Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology Vol 25(5, Suppl 47) Oct 1983, 54.
  • Snyder, R. O. (1993). Attachment, loneliness, and denture satisfaction: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Steele, A. W., & Mehler, P. S. (1999). Oral and dental complications. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Stepanchenko, A. V., Puzin, M. N., & Nekrasova, E. M. (1992). Personality traits in patients with prosopalgias: Zhurnal Nevropatologii i Psikhiatrii imeni S S Korsakova Vol 92(1) 1992, 118-121.
  • Stewart, P. A. (1990). An exploratory study of compliance of elementary school teachers in implementing the California Dental Disease Prevention Program: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Street, P. A., Sheaves, S., Konopasky, R. J., & Lenzer, I. (1987). Children's oral hygiene: Spot checks and contingency management are equivalent: Psychological Reports Vol 61(1) Aug 1987, 300.
  • Sweet, J. J. (1980). Goal setting, expectancy of success, and method of data collection in the self-monitoring of dental hygiene: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Taddese, A., Nah, S.-Y., & McCleskey, E. W. (1995). Selective opioid inhibition of small nociceptive neurons: Science Vol 270(5240) Nov 1995, 1366-1369.
  • Takeda, M., Tanimoto, T., Nishikawa, T., Ikeda, M., Yoshida, S., Ito, M., et al. (2002). Volume expansion suppresses the tooth-pulp evoked jaw-opening reflex related activity of trigeminal neurons in rats: Brain Research Bulletin Vol 58(1) May 2002, 83-89.
  • Tedesco, L. A., Keffer, M. A., & Fleck-Kandath, C. (1991). Self-efficacy, reasoned action, and oral health behavior reports: A social cognitive approach to compliance: Journal of Behavioral Medicine Vol 14(4) Aug 1991, 341-355.
  • Thierry, B., Demaria, C., Preuschoft, S., & Desportes, C. (1989). Structural convergence between silent bared-teeth display and relaxed open-mouth display in the Tonkean macaque (Macaca tonkeana): Folia Primatologica Vol 52(3-4) 1989, 178-184.
  • Toda, K., Iriki, A., & Ichioka, M. (1981). Selective stimulation of intrapulpal nerve of rat lower incisor using a bipolar electrode method: Physiology & Behavior Vol 26(2) Feb 1981, 307-311.
  • Touyz, S. W., Liew, V. P., Tseng, P., Frisken, K., & et al. (1993). Oral and dental complications in dieting disorders: International Journal of Eating Disorders Vol 14(3) Nov 1993, 341-348.
  • Turker, M. N., & Turker, R. K. (1974). A study on the peripheral mediators of dental pain: Experientia Vol 30(8) 1974, 932-933.
  • Turner, S., Sweeney, M., Kennedy, C., & Macpherson, L. (2008). The oral health of people with intellectual disability participating in the UK Special Olympics: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research Vol 52(1) Jan 2008, 29-36.
  • Umino, M., Ohwatari, T., & Nagao, M. (1996). A new method of recording somatosensory evoked potetntials by randomized electrical tooth stimulation with 6 levels of intensity: Pain Vol 64(2) Feb 1996, 269-276.
  • Van de Carr, R., & Lehrer, M. (1986). Enhancing early speech, parental bonding and infant physical development using prenatal intervention in standard obstetric practice: Journal of Prenatal & Perinatal Psychology & Health Vol 1(1) Fal 1986, 20-30.
  • Van der Glas, H. W., de Laat, A., & Van Steenberghe, D. (1985). Oral pressure receptors mediate a series of inhibitory and excitatory periods in the masseteric poststimulus EMG complex following tapping of a tooth in man: Brain Research Vol 337(1) Jun 1985, 117-125.
  • Vigild, M. (1986). Dental caries experience among children with Down's syndrome: Journal of Mental Deficiency Research Vol 30(3) Sep 1986, 271-276.
  • Vogel, R. I., Morante, E. A., Ives, C., & Diamond, R. (1977). Relationship of personality traits and periodontal disease: Psychosomatics: Journal of Consultation Liaison Psychiatry Vol 18(1) 1977, 21-24.
  • von Knorring, A.-L., & Wahlin, Y.-B. (1986). Tricyclic antidepressants and dental caries in children: Neuropsychobiology Vol 15(3-4) Sep 1986, 143-145.
  • von Knorring, L., von Knorring, A.-L., Mornstad, H., & Nordlund, A. (1987). The risk of dental caries in extraverts: Personality and Individual Differences Vol 8(3) 1987, 343-346.
  • Waller, B. M., & Dunbar, R. I. M. (2005). Differential Behavioural Effects of Silent Bared Teeth Display and Relaxed Open Mouth Display in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Ethology Vol 111(2) Feb 2005, 129-142.
  • Watanabe, K., Ozono, S., Nishiyama, K., Saito, S., Tonosaki, K., Fujita, M., et al. (2002). The molarless condition in aged SAMP8 mice attenuates hippocampal Fos induction linked to water maze performance: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 128(1) Jan 2002, 19-25.
  • Watanabe, K., Urasopon, N., & Malaivijitnond, S. (2007). Long-tailed macaques use human hair as dental floss: American Journal of Primatology Vol 69(8) Aug 2007, 940-944.
  • Wayler, A. H., & et al. (1982). Effects of age and dentition status on measures of food acceptability: Journal of Gerontology Vol 37(3) May 1982, 294-299.
  • Wayler, A. H., Muench, M. E., Kapur, K. K., & Chauncey, H. H. (1984). Masticatory performance and food acceptability in persons with removable partial dentures, full dentures and intact natural dentition: Journal of Gerontology Vol 39(3) May 1984, 284-289.
  • Weary, D. M., & Fraser, D. (1999). Partial tooth-clipping of suckling pigs: Effects on neonatal competition and facial injuries: Applied Animal Behaviour Science Vol 65(1) Sep 1999, 21-27.
  • Weiss, B. (1992). Plastic teeth extraction: The iconography of Haya gastro-sexual affliction: American Ethnologist Vol 19(3) Aug 1992, 538-552.
  • Weyant, R. J., Pandav, R. S., Plowman, J. L., & Ganguli, M. (2004). Medical and Cognitive Correlates of Denture Wearing in Older Community-Dwelling Adults: Journal of the American Geriatrics Society Vol 52(4) Apr 2004, 596-600.
  • Widerstrom, E. G., Aslund, P. G., Gustafsson, L. E., Mannheimer, C., & et al. (1992). Relations between experimentally induced tooth pain threshold changes, psychometrics and clinical pain relief following TENS: A retrospective study in patients with long-lasting pain: Pain Vol 51(3) Dec 1992, 281-287.
  • Wilson, S., & Reid, K. H. (1978). Reflex vs behavioral responses to tooth pulp stimulation in the cat: Physiology & Behavior Vol 20(6) Jun 1978, 717-722.
  • Winkler, S. (1989). Psychological aspects of treating complete denture patients: Their relation to prosthodontic success: Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology Vol 2(1) Jan-Mar 1989, 48-51.
  • Yamaguchi, K., Toda, K., & Hayashi, Y. (2003). Effects of stressful training on human pain threshold: Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress Vol 19(1) Feb 2003, 9-15.
  • Yokota, Y. (1975). Excitation of units in marginal rim of trigeminal subnucleus caudalis elicited by tooth pulp stimulation: Brain Research Vol 95(1) 1975, 154-158.
  • Yoshida, M., Morikawa, H., Kanehisa, Y., Taji, T., Tsuga, K., & Akagawa, Y. (2005). Functional dental occlusion may prevent falls in elderly individuals with dementia: Journal of the American Geriatrics Society Vol 53(9) Sep 2005, 1631-1642.
  • Yukizaki, H., & et al. (1986). Electroacupuncture increases ipsilaterally tooth pain threshold in man: American Journal of Chinese Medicine Vol 14(1-2) 1986, 68-72.
  • Zamir, N., & Shuber, E. (1980). Altered pain perception in hypertensive humans: Brain Research Vol 201(2) Nov 1980, 471-474.
  • Zigmond, M., Stabholz, A., Shapira, J., Bachrach, G., Chaushu, G., Becker, A., et al. (2006). The outcome of a preventive dental care programme on the prevalence of localized aggressive periodontitis in Down's syndrome individuals: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research Vol 50(7) Jul 2006, 492-500.
  • Zigmond, M., Stabholz, A., Shapira, J., Bachrach, G., Chaushu, G., Becker, A., et al. (2008). "The outcome of a preventive dental care programme on the prevalence of localized aggressive periodontitis in down's syndrome (ds) individuals": Reply: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research Vol 52(1) Jan 2008, 89-90.
  • Zschiesche, S. (1985). Psychological problems caused by defective development of teeth or jaws in children and adolescents: Praxis der Kinderpsychologie und Kinderpsychiatrie Vol 34(4) May-Jun 1985, 149-154.


External links[]

Human anatomical features
Human body features

HEAD: ForeheadEyeEarNoseMouthTongueTeethJawFaceCheekChin

NECK: ThroatAdam's apple

TORSO: ShouldersSpineChestBreastRibcageAbdomenBelly button

Sex organs (Penis/Scrotum/Testicle or Clitoris/Vagina/Ovary/Uterus) – HipAnusButtocks

LIMBS: ArmElbowForearmWristHandFinger (Thumb - Index finger - Middle finger - Ring finger - Little finger) – LegLapThighKneeCalfHeelAnkleFootToe (Hallux)

SKIN: Hair

Template:Tooth abnormalities

This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).