Assessment |
Biopsychology |
Comparative |
Cognitive |
Developmental |
Language |
Individual differences |
Personality |
Philosophy |
Social |
Methods |
Statistics |
Clinical |
Educational |
Industrial |
Professional items |
World psychology |
Social Processes: Methodology · Types of test
The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test® (WCST) is a neuropsychological test of "set-shifting", i.e. the ability to display flexibility in the face of changing schedules of reinforcement.
Method[]
Initially, four stimulus cards are presented to the participant: the first has one red triangle, the second has two green stars, the third has three yellow crosses, and the fourth has four blue circles. He or she is then given a stack of additional cards and asked to match each one to one of the four stimulus cards, thereby forming four separate piles of cards. The participant is not told how to match the cards; however, he or she is told whether a particular match is right or wrong.
To determine whether each card is sorted correctly, a specific rule is chosen. A trial is correct if it is placed in the pile which matches the card on the dimension of the rule. If the participant successfully sorts a specific number of consecutive trials, the rule is changed. The task continues for 128 trials or until all rule changes have been accomplished successfully (called achieved categories).
The original WCST used paper cards and was carried out with the experimenter on one side of the desk facing the participant on the other.[1] Since the early 1990s, however, computerized versions of the task have been available, the most recent version being the windows-compatible version 4.0.[2] The latter has the advantage of automatically scoring the test, which was quite complex in the manual version. The test takes approximately 12-20 minutes to carry out and generates the following results:
- Number of categories achieved
- Number of trials
- Number of errors
- Number of perseverative errors
- Percentage perseverative errors
Clinical use[]
Clinically, the test is widely used by psychiatrists, neurologists and neuropsychologists in patients with acquired brain injury, neurodegenerative disease, or mental illness such as schizophrenia. Although successful completion of the test relies upon a number of intact cognitive functions including attention, working memory, and visual processing, it is loosely termed a "frontal lobe" test on the basis that patients with any sort of frontal lobe lesion generally do poorly at the test. In particular, patients with lesions of the dorsolateral frontal lobe make a higher number of perseverative errors than control participants.[3] Having achieved the first category they often continue to sort the cards according to the first rule long after that rule has been superseded. A recent factor analysis of the WCST has shown these perseverative errors to be the most useful outcome measure in assessing caseness.[4] A more sophisticated description of deficits of this type is "executive dysfunction".
Use in research[]
The WCST has been used in neuroimaging paradigms such as PET and MRI. As predicted by the acquired brain injury literature, completing the task involves activation primarily of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.[6][7] The test's use in neurodegenerative diseases such as motor neurone disease and multiple sclerosis has identified at least a subgroup of these patients for whom there is some subtle degree of cognitive dysfunction, in contrast to the traditional view that these were pure disorders of the motor system.
The test is also widely used in research into schizophrenia e.g.[8][9]
- Main article: Schizophrenia - Wisconsin Card Sort Test
Reference[]
- ↑ E. A. Berg. (1948). A simple objective technique for measuring flexibility in thinking J. Gen. Psychol. 39: 15-22.
- ↑ Psychological Assessment Resources. Computerised Wisconsin Card Sort Task Version 4 (WCST). Psychological Assessment Resources; 2003.
- ↑ Milner B. Effect of Different Brain Lesions on Card Sorting. Archives of Neurology 1963; 9: 90-100.
- ↑ Greve KW, Stickle TR, Love J, Bianchini KJ, Stanford MS. Latent structure of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: a confirmatory factor analytic study. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 2005; 20: 355-364.
- ↑ Meyer-Lindenberg A, Miletich RS, Kohn PD, Esposito G, Carson RE, Quarantelli M, Weinberger DR, Berman KF (2002) Reduced prefrontal activity predicts exaggerated striatal dopaminergic function in schizophrenia. Nature Neuroscience, 5, 267-71.
- ↑ Berman KF, Ostrem JL, Randolph C et al. Physiological activation of a cortical network during performance of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: a positron emission tomography study. Neuropsychologia 1995; 33: 1027-1046.
- ↑ Cabeza R, Nyberg L. Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. J Cogn Neurosci 2000; 12: 1-47.
- ↑ Cannon TD, Glahn DC, Kim J, Van Erp TG, Karlsgodt K, Cohen MS, Nuechterlein KH, Bava S, Shirinyan D., Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Activity During Maintenance and Manipulation of Information in Working Memory in Patients With Schizophrenia, Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005;62:1071-1080.
- ↑ Rossi A, Daneluzzo E, Tomassini A, Struglia F, Cavallaro R, Smeraldi E, Stratta P., The effect of verbalization strategy on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenic patients receiving classical or atypical antipsychotics. BMC Psychiatry. 2006 Jan 26;6:3.
Further reading[]
Books[]
- Parks, R. W., & Levine, D. S. (1998). Neural network modeling of Wisconsin Card Sorting and verbal fluency tests: Applications with frontal lobe-damaged and Alzheimer's disease patients. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Papers[]
- Abbruzzese, M., Ferri, S., & Scarone, S. (1995). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in obsessive-compulsive disorder: No evidence for involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: Psychiatry Research Vol 58(1) Sep 1995, 37-43.
- Abbruzzese, M., Ferri, S., & Scarone, S. (1996). Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in schizophrenia: Perseveration in clinical subtypes: Psychiatry Research Vol 64(1) Aug 1996, 27-33.
- Abbruzzese, M., Ferri, S., & Scarone, S. (1997). The selective breakdown of frontal functions in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and in patients with schizophrenia: A double dissociation experimental finding: Neuropsychologia Vol 35(6) Jun 1997, 907-912.
- Alevriadou, A., Katsarou, Z., Bostantjopoulou, S., Kiosseoglou, G., & Mentenopoulos, G. (1999). Wisconsin card sorting test variables in relation to motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease: Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol 89(3, Pt 1) Dec 1999, 824-830.
- Amos, A. (2000). A computational model of information processing in the frontal cortex and basal ganglia: Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience Vol 12(3) May 2000, 505-519.
- Angrino, S. O., & Panesso, I. C. (2007). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test for the study of attention deficit with hyperactivity, psychiatric disorders, autism and aging: Universitas Psychologica Vol 6(3) 2007, 637-648.
- Arffa, S., Lovell, M., Podell, K., & Goldberg, E. (1998). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in above average and superior school children: Relationship to intelligence and age: Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 13(8) Nov 1998, 713-720.
- Arnett, P. A., Rao, S. M., Bernardin, L., Grafman, J., & et al. (1994). Relationship between frontal lobe lesions and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in patients with multiple sclerosis: Neurology Vol 44(3) Mar 1994, 420-425.
- Artiola i Fortuny, L., & Heaton, R. K. (1996). Standard versus computerized administration of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 10(4) Nov 1996, 419-424.
- Ashendorf, L., & McCaffrey, R. J. (2008). Exploring age-related decline on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 22(2) Mar 2008, 262-272.
- Ashendorf, L., O'Bryant, S. E., & McCaffrey, R. J. (2003). Specificity of Malingering Detection Strategies in Older Adults Using the CVLT and WCST: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 17(2) May 2003, 25-262.
- Axelrod, B. N. (2002). Are normative data from the 64-card version of the WCST comparable to the full WCST? : Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 16(1) Feb 2002, 7-11.
- Axelrod, B. N., Goldman, R. S., Heaton, R. K., Curtiss, G., & et al. (1996). Discriminability of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test using the standardization sample: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 18(3) Jun 1996, 338-342.
- Axelrod, B. N., Goldman, R. S., Tompkins, L. M., & Jiron, C. C. (1994). Poor differential performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in schizophrenia, mood disorder, and traumatic brain injury: Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, & Behavioral Neurology Vol 7(1) Jan 1994, 20-24.
- Axelrod, B. N., Greve, K. W., & Goldman, R. S. (1994). Comparison of four Wisconsin Card Sorting Test scoring guides with novice raters: Assessment Vol 1(2) Jun 1994, 115-121.
- Axelrod, B. N., Jiron, C. C., & Henry, R. R. (1993). Performance of adults ages 20 to 90 on the abbreviated Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 7(2) Apr 1993, 205-209.
- Barcelo, F. (2001). Does the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test measure prefrontal function? : The Spanish Journal of Psychology Vol 4(1) May 2001, 79-100.
- Barcelo, F., & Knight, R. T. (2002). Both random and perspective errors underlie WCST deficits in prefrontal patients: Neuropsychologia Vol 40(3) 2002, 349-356.
- Barcelo, F., Munoz-Cespedes, J. M., Pozo, M. A., & Rubia, F. J. (2000). Attentional set shifting modulates the target P3b response in the Wisconsin card sorting test: Neuropsychologia Vol 38(10) 2000, 1342-1355.
- Barcelo, F., & Rubia, F. J. (1998). Non-frontal P3b-like activity evoked by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Neuroreport: An International Journal for the Rapid Communication of Research in Neuroscience Vol 9(4) Mar 1998, 747-751.
- Barcelo, F., Sanz, M., Molina, V., & Rubia, F. J. (1997). The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the assessment of frontal function: A validation study with event-related potentials: Neuropsychologia Vol 35(4) Apr 1997, 399-408.
- Barnett, J. H., Jones, P. B., Robbins, T. W., & Muller, U. (2007). Effects of the catechol-O-methyltransferase Valsuperscript 1-sup-5-sup-8Met polymorphism on executive function: Meta-analysis of the Wisconsin Card Sort Test in schizophrenia and healthy controls: Molecular Psychiatry Vol 12(5) May 2007, 502-509.
- Battaglia, M., Abbruzzese, M., Ferri, S., Scarone, S., & et al. (1994). An assessment of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test as an indicator of liability to schizophrenia: Schizophrenia Research Vol 14(1) Dec 1994, 39-45.
- Beatty, W. W., Jocic, Z., Monson, N., & Katzung, V. M. (1994). Problem solving by schizophrenic and schizoaffective patients on the Wisconsin and California Card Sorting Tests: Neuropsychology Vol 8(1) Jan 1994, 49-54.
- Beauvais, J. E., Woods, S. P., Delaney, R. C., & Fein, D. (2004). Development of a Tactile Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Rehabilitation Psychology Vol 49(4) Nov 2004, 282-287.
- Bell, M. D., Greig, T. C., Kaplan, E., & Bryson, G. (1997). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test dimensions in schizophrenia: Factorial, predictive, and divergent validity: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 19(6) Dec 1997, 933-941.
- Bellack, A. S., Blanchard, J. J., Murphy, P., & Podell, K. (1996). Generalization effects of training on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test for schizophrenia patients: Schizophrenia Research Vol 19(2,3) May 1996, 189-194.
- Benge, J. F., Caroselli, J. S., & Temple, R. O. (2007). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Factor structure and relationship to productivity and supervision needs following severe traumatic brain injury: Brain Injury Vol 21(4) Apr 2007, 395-400.
- Berman, K. F., Ostrem, J. L., Randolph, C., Gold, J., & et al. (1995). Physiological activation of a cortical network during performance of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A positron emission tomography study: Neuropsychologia Vol 33(8) Aug 1995, 1027-1046.
- Bernard, L. C., McGrath, M. J., & Houston, W. (1996). The differential effects of simulating malingering, closed head injury, and other CNS pathology on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Support for the "pattern of performance hypothesis." Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 11(3) May-Jun 1996, 231-245.
- Berry, S. (1996). Diagrammatic procedure for scoring the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 10(1) Feb 1996, 117-121.
- Bijl, S., de Bruin, E. A., Bocker, K. B. E., Kenemans, J. L., & Verbaten, M. N. (2005). Chronic effects of social drinking in a card-sorting task: An event related potential study: Clinical Neurophysiology Vol 116(2) Feb 2005, 376-385.
- Bondi, M. W., Monsch, A. U., Butters, N., Salmon, D. P., & et al. (1993). Utility of a modified version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in the detection of dementia of the Alzheimer type: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 7(2) Apr 1993, 161-170.
- Bowden, S. C., Fowler, K. S., Bell, R. C., Whelan, G., Clifford, C. C., Ritter, A. J., et al. (1998). The reliability and internal validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Neuropsychological Rehabilitation Vol 8(3) May 1998, 243-254.
- Buchsbaum, B. R., Greer, S., Chang, W.-L., & Berman, K. F. (2005). Meta-Analysis of Neuroimaging Studies of the Wisconsin Card-Sorting Task and Component Processes: Human Brain Mapping Vol 25(1) May 2005, 35-45.
- Buchsbaum, M. S., Trestman, R. L., Hazlett, E., Siegel, B. V., Jr., Schaefer, C. H., Luu-Hsia, C., et al. (1997). Regional cerebral blood flow during the Wisconsin Card Sort Test in schizotypal personality disorder: Schizophrenia Research Vol 27(1) Oct 1997, 21-28.
- Burrows, S., & Lucas, M. D. (2000). Comparison of two tests of executive functioning: Journal of Genetic Psychology Vol 161(2) Jun 2000, 253-255.
- Bustini, M., Stratta, P., Daneluzzo, E., Pollice, R., Prosperini, P., & Rossi, A. (1999). Tower of Hanoi and WCST performance in schizophrenia: Problem-solving capacity and clinical correlates: Journal of Psychiatric Research Vol 33(3) May-Jun 1999, 285-290.
- Caffarra, P., Vezzadini, G., Dieci, F., Zonato, F., & Venneri, A. (2004). Modified Card Sorting Test: Normative Data: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 26(2) Apr 2004, 246-250.
- Campana, A., Macciardi, F., Gambini, O., & Scarone, S. (1996). The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) performance in normal subjects: A twin study: Neuropsychobiology Vol 34(1) 1996, 14-17.
- Catafau, A. M., Parellada, E., Lomena, F., Bernardo, M., Setoain, J., Catarineu, S., et al. (1998). Role of the cingulate gyrus during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A single photon emission computed tomography study in normal volunteers: Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging Vol 83(2) Aug 1998, 67-74.
- Channon, S. (1996). Executive dysfunction in depression: The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Journal of Affective Disorders 39(2) Jul 1996, 107-114.
- Chase-Carmichael, C. A., Ris, M. D., Weber, A. M., & Schefft, B. K. (1999). Neurologic validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test with a pediatric population: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 13(4) Nov 1999, 405-413.
- Cianchetti, C., Corona, S., Foscoliano, M., Contu, D., & Sannio-Fancello, G. (2007). Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (MCST, MWCST): Normative data in children 4-13 years old, according to classical and new types of scoring: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 21(3) Sep 2007, 456-478.
- Cianchetti, C., Corona, S., Foscoliano, M., Scalas, F., & Sannio-Fancello, G. (2005). Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Proposal of a supplementary scoring method: Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 20(4) Jun 2005, 555-558.
- Cicek, M., & Nalcaci, E. (2001). Interhemispheric asymmetry of EEG alpha activity at rest and during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Relations with performance: Biological Psychology Vol 58(1) Sep 2001, 75-88.
- Cinan, S. (2006). Development of Inhibitory Control and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Turk Psikoloji Yazilari Vol 9(18) Dec 2006, 101-112.
- Cinan, S., & Tanor, O. O. (2002). An attempt to discriminate different types of executive functions in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Memory Vol 10(4) Jul 2002, 277-289.
- Coffey, D. M., Marmol, L., Schock, L., & Adams, W. (2005). The influence of acculturation on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test by Mexican Americans: Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 20(6) Aug 2005, 795-803.
- Corcoran, R., & Upton, D. (1993). A role for the hippocampus in card sorting? : Cortex Vol 29(2) Jun 1993, 293-304.
- Corcoran, R., & Upton, D. (1996). "A role for the hippocampus in card sorting?": Response: Cortex Vol 32(1) Mar 1996, 187-189.
- Cuesta, M. J., Peralta, V., Caro, F., & de Leon, J. (1995). Is poor insight in psychotic disorders associated with poor performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test? : American Journal of Psychiatry Vol 152(9) Sep 1995, 1380-1382.
- Cuesta, M. J., Peralta, V., Caro, F., & de Leon, J. (1995). Schizophrenic syndrome and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test dimensions: Psychiatry Research Vol 58(1) Sep 1995, 45-51.
- Cuesta, M. J., Peralta, V., Caro, F., & de Leon, J. (1996). "Is poor sight in psychotic disorders associated with poor performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test?": Correction: American Journal of Psychiatry Vol 153(2) Feb 1996, 270.
- de Zubicaray, G., & Ashton, R. (1996). Nelson's (1976) Modified Card Sorting Test: A review: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 10(3) Aug 1996, 245-254.
- de Zubicaray, G., & Ashton, R. (1996). "A role for the hippocampus in card sorting?" A cautionary note: A comment to Corcoran and Upton: Cortex Vol 32(1) Mar 1996, 187-189.
- Deicken, R. F., Merrin, E. L., Floyd, T. C., & Weiner, M. W. (1995). Correlation between left frontal phospholipids and Wisconsin Card Sort Test performance in schizophrenia: Schizophrenia Research Vol 14(2) Jan 1995, 177-181.
- Demakis, G. J. (2003). A meta-analytic review of the sensitivity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test to frontal and lateralized frontal brain damage: Neuropsychology Vol 17(2) Apr 2003, 255-264.
- Deshpande, S. A., Lichtenberg, P. A., & Youngblade, L. (1997). Clinical utility of the modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Clinical Gerontologist Vol 17(3) 1997, 55-58.
- Dias, R., Robbins, T. W., & Roberts, A. C. (1996). Primate analogue of the Wisconsin card sorting test: Effects of excitotoxic lesions of the prefrontal cortex in the marmoset: Behavioral Neuroscience Vol 110(5) Oct 1996, 872-886.
- Dieci, M., Vita, A., Silenzi, C., Caputo, A., Comazzi, M., Ferrari, L., et al. (1997). Non-selective impairment of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in patients with schizophrenia: Schizophrenia Research Vol 25(1) May 1997, 33-42.
- Donders, J. (1999). Specificity of a malingering formula for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Journal of Forensic Neuropsychology Vol 1(3) 1999, 35-42.
- Donders, J., & Wildeboer, M. A. (2004). Validity of the WCST-64 After Traumatic Brain Injury in Children: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 18(4) Nov 2004, 521-527.
- Eling, P., Derckx, K., & Maes, R. (2008). On the historical and conceptual background of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Brain and Cognition Vol 67(3) Aug 2008, 247-253.
- Elvevag, B., & Goldberg, T. E. (1999). Commentary on Laws: Refining Laws--A rejoinder: Cognitive Neuropsychiatry Vol 4(1) Feb 1999, 33-35.
- Everett, J., Lavoie, K., Gagnon, J.-F., & Gosselin, N. (2001). Performance of patients with schizophrenia on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST): Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience Vol 26(2) Mar 2001, 123-130.
- Fallgatter, A. J., & Strik, W. K. (1998). Frontal brain activation during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test assessed with two-channel near-infrared spectroscopy: European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience Vol 248(5) 1998, 245-249.
- Feldstein, S. N., Keller, F. R., Portman, R. E., Durham, R. L., Klebe, K. J., & Davis, H. P. (1999). A comparison of computerized and standard versions of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 13(3) Aug 1999, 303-313.
- Ferland, M. B., Ramsay, J., Engeland, C., & O'Hara, P. (1998). Comparison of the performance of normal individuals and survivors of traumatic brain injury on repeat administrations of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 20(4) Aug 1998, 473-482.
- Fisher, N. J., DeLuca, J. W., & Rourke, B. P. (1997). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Halstead Category Test Performances of Children and adolescents who exhibit the syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: Child Neuropsychology Vol 3(1) Apr 1997, 61-70.
- Fleck, D. E., Shear, P. K., Madore, M., & Strakowski, S. M. (2008). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in bipolar disorder: Effects of mood state and early course: Bipolar Disorders Vol 10(4) Jun 2008, 539-545.
- Fristoe, N. M., Salthouse, T. A., & Woodard, J. L. (1997). Examination of age-related deficits on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Neuropsychology Vol 11(3) Jul 1997, 428-436.
- Frith, C. (1999). Commentary on Laws: What are we trying to explain? : Cognitive Neuropsychiatry Vol 4(1) Feb 1999, 31-32.
- Galic, S. (2007). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in differential diagnosis of schizophrenia and brain disorder: Suvremena Psihologija Vol 10(2) 2007, 223-236.
- Gold, J. M., Carpenter, C., Randolph, C., Goldberg, T. E., & Weinberger, D. R. (1997). Auditory working memory and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia: Archives of General Psychiatry Vol 54(2) Feb 1997, 159-165.
- Goldberg, T. E., & Weinberger, D. R. (1994). Schizophrenia, training paradigms, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test redux: Schizophrenia Research Vol 11(3) Feb 1994, 291-296.
- Golden, C. J., Kushner, T., Lee, B., & McMorrow, M. A. (1998). Searching for the meaning of the Category Test and the Wisconsin Card Sort Test: A comparative analysis: International Journal of Neuroscience Vol 93(1-2) 1998, 141-150.
- Goldman, R. S., Axelrod, B. N., Heaton, R. K., Chelune, G. J., & et al. (1996). Latent structure of the WCST with the standardization samples: Assessment Vol 3(1) Mar 1996, 73-78.
- Goldstein, B., Obrzut, J. E., John, C., Ledakis, G., & Armstrong, C. L. (2004). The impact of frontal and non-frontal brain tumor lesions on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance: Brain and Cognition Vol 54(2) 2004, 110-116.
- Goldstein, G., Beers, S. R., & Shemansky, W. J. (1996). Neuropsychological differences between schizophrenic patients with heterogeneous Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance: Schizophrenia Research Vol 21(1) Jul 1996, 13-18.
- Gonzalez-Hernandez, J. A., Pita-Alcorta, C., Cedeno, I., Bosch-Bayard, J., Galan-Garcia, L., Scherbaum, W. A., et al. (2002). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test synchronizes the prefrontal, temporal and posterior association cortex in different frequency ranges and extensions: Human Brain Mapping Vol 17(1) Sep 2002, 37-47.
- Goshiki, T., & Miyahara, M. (2008). Effects of individual differences and irrelevant speech on WCST and Stroop test: Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient Vol 51(1) Mar 2008, 28-45.
- Greve, K. W. (1993). Can perseverative responses on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test be scored accurately? : Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 8(6) Nov-Dec 1993, 511-517.
- Greve, K. W. (2001). The WCST-64: A standardized short-form of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 15(2) May 2001, 228-234.
- Greve, K. W., & Bianchini, K. J. (2002). Using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test to detect malingering: An analysis of the specificity of two methods in nonmalingering normal and patient samples: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 24(1) Feb 2002, 48-54.
- Greve, K. W., Bianchini, K. J., Mathias, C. W., Houston, R. J., & Crouch, J. A. (2002). Detecting malingered performance with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A preliminary investigation in traumatic brain injury: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 16(2) May 2002, 179-191.
- Greve, K. W., Brooks, J., Crouch, J. A., Williams, M. C., & et al. (1997). Factorial structure of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: British Journal of Clinical Psychology Vol 36(2) May 1997, 283-285.
- Greve, K. W., Ingram, F., & Bianchini, K. J. (1998). Latent structure of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in a clinical sample: Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 13(7) Oct 1998, 597-609.
- Greve, K. W., Love, J. M., Sherwin, E., Mathias, C. W., Houston, R. J., & Brennan, A. (2002). Temporal stability of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in a chronic traumatic brain injury sample: Assessment Vol 9(3) Sep 2002, 271-277.
- Greve, K. W., Love, J. M., Sherwin, E., Mathias, C. W., Ramzinski, P., & Levy, J. (2002). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in chronic severe traumatic brain injury: Factor structure and performance subgroups: Brain Injury Vol 16(1) Jan 2002, 29-40.
- Greve, K. W., Stickle, T. R., Love, J. M., Bianchini, K. J., & Stanford, M. S. (2005). Latent structure of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A confirmatory factor analytic study: Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 20(3) May 2005, 355-364.
- Greve, K. W., Williams, M. C., Haas, W. G., Littell, R. R., & Reinoso, C. (1996). The role of attention in Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance: Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 11(3) May-Jun 1996, 215-222.
- Haines, J., Hoffman, W., Hanada, J., Brown, P., & et al. (1994). Further evaluation of prefrontal lobe function data in schizophrenic patients during Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: American Journal of Psychiatry Vol 151(12) Dec 1994, 1842-1843.
- Hamaoui, Y. E., Elyazaji, M., Yaalaoui, S., Rachidi, L., Saoud, M., d'Amato, T., et al. (2006). Wisconsin Card Sorting Task in Patients with Schizophrenia and their Siblings: The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry / La Revue canadienne de psychiatrie Vol 51(1) Jan 2006, 48-54.
- Hartman, M., Steketee, M. C., Silva, S., Lanning, K., & Andersson, C. (2003). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia: The role of working memory: Schizophrenia Research Vol 63(3) Oct 2003, 201-217.
- Hashimoto, K., Uruma, G., & Abo, M. (2007). Activation of the prefrontal cortex during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (Keio Version) as measured by two-channel near-infrared spectroscopy in patients with traumatic brain injury: European Neurology Vol 59(1-2) Dec 2007, 24-30.
- Hatcher, P. D., Brown, V. J., Tait, D. S., Bate, S., Overend, P., Hagan, J. J., et al. (2005). 5-HT-sub-6 receptor antagonists improve performance in an attentional set shifting task in rats: Psychopharmacology Vol 181(2) Sep 2005, 253-259.
- Haut, M. W., Cahill, J., Cutlip, W. D., Stevenson, J. M., & et al. (1996). On the nature of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia: Psychiatry Research Vol 65(1) Nov 1996, 15-22.
- Hellman, S. G., Kern, R. S., Neilson, L. M., & Green, M. F. (1998). Monetary reinforcement and Wisconsin Card Sorting performance in schizophrenia: Why show me the money? : Schizophrenia Research Vol 34(1-2) Nov 1998, 67-75.
- Henry, J. D. (2006). A meta-analytic review of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Verbal Fluency Performance in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Cognitive Neuropsychiatry Vol 11(2) Mar 2006, 156-176.
- Hernandez, J. A. G., Cedeno, I., Pita-Alcorta, C., Galan, L., Aubert, E., & Figueredo-Rodriguez, P. (2003). Induced oscillations and the distributed cortical sources during the Wisconsin card sorting test performance in schizophrenic patients: New clues to neural connectivity: International Journal of Psychophysiology Vol 48(1) Apr 2003, 11-24.
- Hillbrand, M., & Young, J. L. (1995). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance during carbamazepine monotherapy of aggressive behavior: An A-B-A-B case report: Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, & Behavioral Neurology Vol 8(1) Jan 1995, 61-63.
- Horner, M. D., Flashman, L. A., Freides, D., Epstein, C. M., & et al. (1996). Temporal lobe epilepsy and performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 18(2) Apr 1996, 310-313.
- Igarashi, K., Oguni, H., Osawa, M., Awaya, Y., Kato, M., Mimura, M., et al. (2002). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in children with temporal lobe epilepsy: Brain & Development Vol 24(3) Apr 2002, 174-178.
- Ilonen, T., Taiminen, T., Karlsson, H., Lauerma, H., Tuimala, P., Leinonen, K.-M., et al. (2000). Impaired Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in first-episode severe depression: Nordic Journal of Psychiatry Vol 54(4) 2000, 275-280.
- Ilonen, T., Taiminen, T., Lauerma, H., Karlsson, H., Helenius, H. Y. M., Tuimala, P., et al. (2000). Impaired Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in first-episode schizophrenia: Resource or motivation deficit? : Comprehensive Psychiatry Vol 41(5) Sep-Oct 2000, 385-391.
- Ingram, F., Greve, K. W., Fishel Ingram, P. T., & Soukup, V. M. (1999). Temporal stability of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in an untreated patient sample: British Journal of Clinical Psychology Vol 38(2) Jun 1999, 209-211.
- Iverson, G. L., Slick, D. J., & Franzen, M. D. (2000). Clinical normative data for the WCST-64 following uncomplicated mild head injury: Applied Neuropsychology Vol 7(4) 2000, 247-251.
- Joel, D., Weiner, I., & Feldon, J. (1997). Electrolytic lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex in rats disrupt performance on an analog of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, but do not disrupt latent inhibition: Implications for animal models of schizophrenia: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 85(2) May 1997, 187-201.
- Kaland, N., Smith, L., & Mortensen, E. L. (2008). Brief report: Cognitive flexibility and focused attention in children and adolescents with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism as measured on the computerized version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Vol 38(6) Jul 2008, 1161-1165.
- Kaplan, G. B., Sengor, N. S., Gurvit, H., Genc, I., & Guzelis, C. (2006). A composite neural network model for perseveration and distractibility in the Wisconsin card sorting test: Neural Networks Vol 19(4) May 2006, 375-387.
- Kawasaki, Y., Maeda, Y., Suzuki, M., Urata, K., & et al. (1993). SPECT analysis of regional cerebral blood flow changes in patients with schizophrenia during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Schizophrenia Research Vol 10(2) Aug 1993, 109-116.
- Kern, R. S., & Green, M. F. (1998). Cognitive remediation in schizophrenia. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
- Kern, R. S., Wallace, C. J., Hellman, S. G., Womack, L. M., & et al. (1996). A training procedure for remediating WCST deficits in chronic psychotic patients: An adaptation of errorless learning principles: Journal of Psychiatric Research Vol 30(4) Jul-Aug 1996, 283-294.
- Kern, R. S., Wallace, C. J., Hellman, S. G., Womack, L. M., & Green, M. F. (1997). "A training procedure for remediating WCST deficits in chronic psychotic patients: An adaptation of errorless learning principles": Erratum: Journal of Psychiatric Research Vol 31(3) May-Jun 1997, I.
- Kim, C.-H., Lee, S.-A., Yoo, H.-J., Kang, J.-K., & Lee, J.-K. (2007). Executive Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy: European Neurology Vol 57(1) 2007, 39-46.
- King, J. H., Sweet, J. J., Sherer, M., Curtiss, G., & Vanderploeg, R. D. (2002). Validity indicators within the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Application of new and previously researched multivariate procedures in multiple traumatic brain injury samples: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 16(4) Dec 2002, 506-523.
- Kirsch, V., Pritzel, M., & Goldbeck, L. (2007). The specifity of cognitive performance of depressive children and adolescents in WISC-III results: Zeitschrift fur Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie: Forschung und Praxis Vol 36(2) 2007, 105-111.
- Kizilbash, A., & Donders, J. (1999). Latent structure of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test after pediatric traumatic head injury: Child Neuropsychology Vol 5(4) Dec 1999, 224-229.
- Klein, C., Foerster, F., & Hartnegg, K. (2007). Regression-based developmental models exemplified for Wisconsin Card Sorting Test parameters: Statistics and software for individual predictions: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 29(1) Jan 2007, 25-35.
- Konishi, S., Kawazu, M., Uchida, I., Kikyo, H., Asakura, I., & Miyashita, Y. (1999). Contribution of working memory to transient activation in human inferior prefrontal cortex during performance of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Cerebral Cortex Vol 9(7) Oct-Nov 1999, 745-753.
- Konishi, S., Nakajima, K., Uchida, I., Kameyama, M., Nakahara, K., Sekihara, K., et al. (1998). Transient activation of inferior prefrontal cortex during cognitive set shifting: Nature Neuroscience Vol 1(1) May 1998, 80-84.
- Koren, D., Seidman, L. J., Harrison, R. H., Lyons, M. J., Kremem, W. S., Caplan, B., et al. (1998). Factor structure of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Dimensions of deficit in schizophrenia: Neuropsychology Vol 12(2) Apr 1998, 289-302.
- Krystal, J. H., Bennett, A., Abi-Saab, D., Belger, A., Karper, L. P., D'Souza, D. C., et al. (2000). Dissociation of Ketamine effects on rule acquisition and rule implementation: Possible relevance to NMDA receptor contributions to executive cognitive functions: Biological Psychiatry Vol 47(2) Jan 2000, 137-143.
- Kurtz, M. M., & Wexler, B. E. (2006). Differences in performance and learning proficiency on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in schizophrenia: Do they reflect distinct neurocognitive subtypes with distinct functional profiles? : Schizophrenia Research Vol 81(2-3) Jan 2006, 167-171.
- Kurtz, M. M., Wexler, B. E., & Bell, M. D. (2004). The Penn Conditional Exclusion Test (PCET): relationship to the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and work function in patients with schizophrenia: Schizophrenia Research Vol 68(1) May 2004, 95-102.
- Laiacona, M., Inzaghi, M. G., De Tanti, A., & Capitani, E. (2000). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A new global score, with Italian norms, and its relationship with the Weigl sorting test: Neurological Sciences Vol 21(5) 2000, 279-291.
- Lavoie, K., & Everett, J. (2001). Schizoprenia and performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST): Deficits and rehabilitation: L'Encephale Vol 27(5) Sep-Oct 2001, 444-449.
- Laws, K. R. (1999). A meta-analytic review of Wisconsin Card Sort studies in schizophrenia: General intellectual deficit in disguise? : Cognitive Neuropsychiatry Vol 4(1) Feb 1999, 1-30.
- Lin, C. C. H., Chen, W. J., Yang, H.-J., Hsiao, C. K., & Tien, A. Y. (2000). Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test among adolescents in Taiwan: Norms, factorial structure, and relation to schizotypy: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 22(1) Feb 2000, 69-79.
- Lineweaver, T. T., Bondi, M. W., Thomas, R. G., & Salmon, D. P. (1999). A normative study of Nelson's (1976) modified version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in healthy older adults: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 13(3) Aug 1999, 328-347.
- Lombardi, W. J., Andreason, P. J., Sirocco, K. Y., Rio, D. E., Gross, R. E., Umhau, J. C., et al. (1999). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance following head injury: Dorsolateral fronto-striatal circuit activity predicts perseveration: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 21(1) Feb 1999, 2-16.
- Love, J. M., Greve, K. W., Sherwin, E., & Mathias, C. (2003). Comparability of the standard WCST and WCST-64 in traumatic brain injury: Applied Neuropsychology Vol 10(4) Dec 2003, 246-251.
- Lucey, J. V., Burness, C. E., Costa, D. C., Gacinovic, S., Pilowsky, L. S., Ell, P. J., et al. (1997). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) errors and cerebral blood flow in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): British Journal of Medical Psychology Vol 70(4) Dec 1997, 403-411.
- Lysaker, P., Bell, M., & Beam-Goulet, J. (1995). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and work performance in schizophrenia: Psychiatry Research Vol 56(1) Jan 1995, 45-51.
- Lysaker, P. H., Bell, M. D., Bioty, S., & Zito, W. S. (1996). Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test as a predictor of rehospitalization in schizophrenia: Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease Vol 184(5) May 1996, 319-321.
- Lysaker, P. H., Bell, M. D., Bioty, S. M., & Zito, W. S. (1997). Cognitive impairment and substance abuse history as predictors of the temporal stability of negative symptoms in schizophrenia: Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease Vol 185(1) Jan 1997, 21-26.
- MacPherson, S., & Sala, S. D. (2000). Welcoming normative data for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Italian Journal of Neurological Sciences Vol 21(5) 2000, 258-260.
- Mansouri, F. A., Matsumoto, K., & Tanaka, K. (2006). Prefrontal Cell Activities Related to Monkeys' Success and Failure in Adapting to Rule Changes in a Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Analog: Journal of Neuroscience Vol 26(10) Mar 2006, 2745-2756.
- Marenco, S., Coppola, R., Daniel, D. G., Zigun, J. R., & et al. (1993). Regional cerebral blood flow during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in normal subjects studied by xenon-133 dynamic SPECT: Comparison of absolute values, percent distribution values, and covariance analysis: Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging Vol 50(3) Oct 1993, 177-192.
- Matsui, H., Nishinaka, K., Oda, M., Niikawa, H., Komatsu, K., Kubori, T., et al. (2007). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in Parkinson's disease: Diffusion tensor imaging: Acta Neurologica Scandinavica Vol 116(2) Aug 2007, 108-112.
- Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2003). Analysis of WISC-III, Stanford-Binet:IV, and Academic Achievement Test Scores in Children with Autism: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Vol 33(3) Jun 2003, 329-341.
- McGurk, S. R., Coleman, T., Harvey, P. D., Reichenberg, A., White, L., Friedman, J., et al. (2004). Working Memory Performance in Poor Outcome Schizophrenia: Relationship to Age and Executive Functioning: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 26(2) Apr 2004, 153-160.
- Merriam, E. P., Thase, M. E., Haas, G. L., Keshavan, M. S., & Sweeney, J. A. (1999). Prefrontal cortical dysfunction in depression determined by Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance: American Journal of Psychiatry Vol 156(5) May 1999, 780-782.
- Merrick, E. E., Donders, J., & Wiersum, M. (2003). Validity of the WCST-64 After Traumatic Brain Injury: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 17(2) May 2003, 153-158.
- Mullane, J. C., & Corkum, P. V. (2007). The relationship between working memory, inhibition, and performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in children with and without ADHD: Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment Vol 25(3) Sep 2007, 211-221.
- Nagahama, Y., Okina, T., Suzuki, N., Matsuzaki, S., Yamauchi, H., Nabatame, H., et al. (2003). Factor Structure of a Modified Version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: An Analysis of Executive Deficit in Alzheimer's Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders Vol 16(2) Jun 2003, 103-112.
- Nagahama, Y., Okina, T., Suzuki, N., Nabatame, H., & Matsuda, M. (2005). The cerebral correlates of different types of perseveration in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry Vol 76(2) Feb 2005, 169-175.
- Nieuwenstein, M. R., Aleman, A., & de Haan, E. H. F. (2001). Relationship between symptom dimensions and neurocognitive functioning in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of WCST and CPT studies: Journal of Psychiatric Research Vol 35(2) Mar-Apr 2001, 119-125.
- Nisbet, H., Siegert, R., Hunt, M., & Fairley, N. (1996). Improving schizophrenic in-patients' Wisconsin card-sorting performance: British Journal of Clinical Psychology Vol 35(4) Nov 1996, 631-633.
- Ozonoff, S. (1995). Reliability and validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in studies of autism: Neuropsychology Vol 9(4) Oct 1995, 491-500.
- Paniak, C., Miller, H. B., Murphy, D., Patterson, L., & et al. (1996). Canadian developmental norms for 9 to 14 year-olds on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Canadian Journal of Rehabilitation Vol 9(4) Sum 1996, 233-237.
- Paolo, A. M., Axelrod, B. N., Ryan, J. J., & Goldman, R. S. (1994). Administration accuracy of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 8(1) Mar 1994, 112-116.
- Paolo, A. M., Axelrod, B. N., & Troster, A. I. (1996). Test-retest stability of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Assessment Vol 3(2) Jun 1996, 137-143.
- Paolo, A. M., Axelrod, B. N., Troster, A. I., Blackwell, K. T., & Koller, W. C. (1996). Utility of a Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Short Form in persons with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 18(6) Dec 1996, 892-897.
- Paolo, A. M., Troster, A. I., Axelrod, B. N., & Koller, W. C. (1995). Construct validity of the WCST in normal elderly and persons with Parkinson's disease: Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 10(5) Sep-Oct 1995, 463-473.
- Park, S. (1997). Association of an oculomotor delayed response task and Wisconsin Card Sort Test in schizophrenic patients: International Journal of Psychophysiology Vol 27(2) Sep 1997, 147-151.
- Parmenter, B. A., Zivadinov, R., Kerenyi, L., Gavett, R., Weinstock-Guttman, B., Dwyer, M. G., et al. (2007). Validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting and Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (DKEFS) Sorting Tests in multiple sclerosis: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 29(2) Feb 2007, 215-223.
- Perry, W., & Braff, D. L. (1998). A multimethod approach to assessing perseverations in schizophrenia patients: Schizophrenia Research Vol 33(1-2) Sep 1998, 69-78.
- Perry, W., Potterat, E. G., & Braff, D. L. (2001). Self-monitoring enhances Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in patients with schizophrenia: Performance is improved by simply asking patients to verbalize their sorting strategy: Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society Vol 7(3) Mar 2001, 344-352.
- Purdon, S. E., & Waldie, B. (2001). A short form of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience Vol 26(3) May 2001, 253-256.
- Ragland, J. D., Censits, D. M., Gur, R. C., Glahn, D. C., & et al. (1996). Assessing declarative memory in schizophrenia using Wisconsin Card Sorting Test stimuli: The Paired Associate Recognition Test: Psychiatry Research Vol 60(2-3) Mar 1996, 135-145.
- Rempfer, M., Hamera, E., Brown, C., & Bothwell, R. J. (2006). Learning proficiency on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in people with serious mental illness: What are the cognitive characteristics of good learners? : Schizophrenia Research Vol 87(1-3) Oct 2006, 316-322.
- Rhodes, M. G. (2004). Age-Related Differences in Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A Meta-Analytic Review: Psychology and Aging Vol 19(3) Sep 2004, 482-494.
- Riccio, C. A., Hall, J., Morgan, A., Hynd, G. W., & et al. (1994). Executive function and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Relationship with behavioral ratings and cognitive ability: Developmental Neuropsychology Vol 10(3) 1994, 215-229.
- Riehemann, S., Volz, H.-P., Stutzer, P., Smesny, S., Gaser, C., & Sauer, H. (2001). Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naive schizophrenic patients during the Wisconsin Car Sorting Test-A fMRI study: European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience Vol 251(2) 2001, 66-71.
- Rodriguez-Jimenez, R., Hoenicka, J., Jimenez-Arriero, M. A., Ponce, G., Bagney, A., Aragues, M., et al. (2006). Performance in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the C957T polymorphism of the DRD2 gene in healthy volunteers: Neuropsychobiology Vol 54(3) Mar 2006, 166-170.
- Rojas, L. G., Santos, P. M., & Sanchez-Pedreno, F. O. (2005). Performance in WCST in patients with schizophrenia: Influence of clinical variables in manual laterality: Actas Espanolas de Psiquiatria Vol 33(3) May-Jun 2005, 173-179.
- Romine, C. B., Lee, D., Wolfe, M. E., Homack, S., George, C., & Riccio, C. A. (2004). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test with children: A meta-analytic study of sensitivity and specificity: Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 19(8) Dec 2004, 1027-1041.
- Rossell, S. L., & David, A. S. (1997). Improving performance on the WCST: Variations on the original procedure: Schizophrenia Research Vol 28(1) Nov 1997, 63-76.
- Rosselli, M., & Ardila, A. (1993). Developmental norms for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in 5- to 12-year-old children: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 7(2) Apr 1993, 145-154.
- Rossi, A., Arduini, L., Daneluzzo, E., Bustini, M., Prosperini, P., & Stratta, P. (2000). Cognitive function in euthymic bipolar patients, stabilized schizophrenic patients, and healthy controls: Journal of Psychiatric Research Vol 34(4-5) Jul-Aug 2000, 333-339.
- Rossi, A., Daneluzzo, E., Tomassini, A., Struglia, F., Cavallaro, R., Smeraldi, E., et al. (2006). The effect of verbalization strategy on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenic patients receiving classical or atypical antipsychotics: BMC Psychiatry 6 Jan 2006 ArtID 3.
- Rowe, E. W., & Shean, G. (1997). Card-sort performance and syndromes of schizophrenia: Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs Vol 123(2) May 1997, 197-209.
- Rybakowski, J. K., Borkowska, A., Czerski, P. M., Dmitrzak-Weglarz, M., Skibinska, M., Kapelski, P., et al. (2006). Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in schizophrenia and genes of dopaminergic inactivation (COMT, DAT, NET): Psychiatry Research Vol 143(1) Jun 2006, 13-19.
- Rybakowski, J. K., Borkowska, A., Czerski, P. M., Skibinska, M., & Hauser, J. (2003). Polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene and performance on a cognitive prefrontal test in bipolar patients: Bipolar Disorders Vol 5(6) Dec 2003, 468-472.
- Rybakowski, J. K., Borkowska, A., Skibinska, M., & Hauser, J. (2007). Polymorphisms of the Fyn kinase gene and a performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in schizophrenia: Psychiatric Genetics Vol 17(3) Jun 2007, 201-204.
- Salvador, J., Cortes, J. F., & Galindo y Villa, G. (2000). What is the neuropsychological meaning of perseveration in paranoid schizophrenic patients in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test? : Salud Mental Vol 23(4) Aug 2000, 28-37.
- Sanz, M., Molina, V., Calcedo, A., Martin-Loeches, M., & Rubia, F. J. (2001). The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the assessment of frontal function in obsessive-compulsive patients: An event-related potential study: Cognitive Neuropsychiatry Vol 6(2) 2001, 109-129.
- Sato, R., Tanaka, A., Hosokawa, T., & Murai, N. (1998). Characteristics of perseverative errors by school-age children: Psychological Reports Vol 83(3, Pt 1) Dec 1998, 1075-1080.
- Schapiro, M. B., Berman, K. F., Alexander, G. E., Weinberger, D. R., & Rapoport, S. I. (1999). Regional cerebral blood flow in Down syndrome adults during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Exploring cognitive activation in the context of poor performance: Biological Psychiatry Vol 45(9) May 1999, 1190-1196.
- Schiffer, R. A., Sigal, M., & Mintz, M. (1996). Delayed habituation of the skin-conductance orienting response correlates with impaired performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task in schizophrenia: Psychiatry Research Vol 65(2) Nov 1996, 107-112.
- Schuepbach, D., Hell, D., & Baumgartner, R. W. (2005). Lateralization of cerebral hemodynamics during Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A functional transcranial Doppler sonography study: Clinical Neurophysiology Vol 116(5) May 2005, 1041-1048.
- Schuepbach, D., Merlo, M. C. G., Goenner, F., Staikov, I., Mattle, H. P., Dierks, T., et al. (2002). Cerebral hemodynamic response induced by the Tower of Hanoi puzzle and the Wisconsin Card Sorting test: Neuropsychologia Vol 40(1) 2002, 39-53.
- Secrest, L., Ernst Wood, A., & Tapp, A. (2000). A comparison of the Allen Cognitive Level Test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in adults with schizophrenia: American Journal of Occupational Therapy Vol 54(2) Mar-Apr 2000, 129-133.
- Seidenberg, M., Hermann, B., Noe, A., & Wyler, A. R. (1995). Depression in temporal lobe epilepsy: Interaction between laterality of lesion and Wisconsin Card Sort Performance: Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, & Behavioral Neurology Vol 8(2) Apr 1995, 81-87.
- Sherer, M., Nick, T. G., Millis, S. R., & Novack, T. A. (2003). Use of the WCST and the WCST-64 in the assessment of traumatic brain injury: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 25(4) Jun 2003, 512-520.
- Shu, B.-C., Tien, A. Y., Lung, F.-W., & Chang, Y.-Y. (2000). Norms for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in 6- to 11-year-old children in Taiwan: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 14(3) Aug 2000, 275-286.
- Shu, C., Wang, G., & Wang, H. (2004). Correlation between clinical symptom and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in Patients with Schizophrenia: Chinese Mental Health Journal Vol 18(8) Aug 2004, 580-582.
- Siegel, B. V., Jr., Trestman, R. L., O'Flaithbheartaigh, S., Mitropoulou, V., Amin, F., Kirrane, R., et al. (1996). D-amphetamine challenge effects on Wisconsin Card Sort Test: Performance in schizotypal personality disorder: Schizophrenia Research Vol 20(1-2) May 1996, 29-32.
- Silberstein, R. B., Ciorciari, J., & Pipingas, A. (1995). Steady-state visually evoked potential topography during the Wisconsin card sorting test: Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology: Evoked Potentials Vol 96(1) Jan 1995, 24-35.
- Smith-Seemiller, L., Arffa, S., & Franzen, M. D. (2001). Use of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test short forms with school-age children: Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 16(5) Jul 2001, 489-499.
- Smith-Seemiller, L., Franzen, M. D., & Bowers, D. (1997). Use of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test short forms in clinical samples: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 11(4) Nov 1997, 421-427.
- Snow, J. H. (1998). Developmental patterns and use of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test for Children and adolescents with learning disabilities: Child Neuropsychology Vol 4(2) Aug 1998, 89-97.
- Somsen, R. J. M. (2007). The development of attention regulation in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task: Developmental Science Vol 10(5) Sep 2007, 664-680.
- Somsen, R. J. M., van der Molen, M. W., Jennings, J. R., & Beek, B. v. (2000). Wisconsin card sorting in adolescents: Analysis of performance, response times and heart rate: Acta Psychologica Vol 104(2) May 2000, 227-257.
- Steinberg, J. L., Devous, M. D., Sr., & Paulman, R. G. (1996). Wisconsin Card Sorting activated regional cerebral blood flow in first break and chronic schizophrenic patients and normal controls: Schizophrenia Research Vol 19(2,3) May 1996, 177-187.
- Stemme, A., Deco, G., & Busch, A. (2007). The neurodynamics underlying attentional control in set shifting tasks: Cognitive Neurodynamics Vol 1(3) Sep 2007, 249-259.
- Stratta, P., Arduini, L., Daneluzzo, E., Rinaldi, O., di Genova, A., & Rossi, A. (2004). Relationship of good and poor Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance to illness duration in schizophrenia: A cross-sectional analysis: Psychiatry Research Vol 121(3) Jan 2004, 219-227.
- Stratta, P., Daneluzzo, E., Mattei, P., Bustini, M., Casacchia, M., & Rossi, A. (1997). No deficit in Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance of schizophrenic patients' first-degree relatives: Schizophrenia Research Vol 26(2-3) Aug 1997, 147-151.
- Stratta, P., Daneluzzo, E., Prosperini, P., Bustini, M., Mattei, P., & Rossi, A. (1997). Is Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance related to working memory' capacity? : Schizophrenia Research Vol 27(1) Oct 1997, 11-19.
- Stratta, P., Mancini, F., Mattei, P., Casacchia, M., & et al. (1994). Information processing strategy to remediate Wisconsin Cart Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia: A pilot study: American Journal of Psychiatry Vol 151(6) Jun 1994, 915-918.
- Stratta, P., Mancini, F., Mattei, P., Daneluzzo, E., Bustini, M., Casacchia, M., et al. (1997). Remediation of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia: Psychopathology Vol 30(2) Mar-Apr 1997, 59-66.
- Stratta, P., Mancini, F., Mattei, P., Daneluzzo, E., Casacchia, M., & Rossi, A. (1997). Association between striatal reduction and poor Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in patients with schizophrenia: Biological Psychiatry Vol 42(9) Nov 1997, 816-820.
- Strauss, E., Hunter, M., & Wada, J. (1993). Wisconsin Card Sorting performance: Effects of age of onset of damage and laterality of dysfunction: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 15(6) Nov 1993, 896-902.
- Stuss, D. T., Levine, B., Alexander, M. P., Hong, J., Palumbo, C., Hamer, L., et al. (2000). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in patients with focal frontal and posterior brain damage: Effects of lesion location and test structure on separable cognitive processes: Neuropsychologia Vol 38(4) 2000, 388-402.
- Su, C.-Y., Lin, Y.-H., Kwan, A.-L., & Guo, N.-W. (2008). Construct validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 in patients with stroke: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 22(2) Mar 2008, 273-287.
- Suhr, J. A., & Boyer, D. (1999). Use of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in the detection of malingering in student simulator and patient samples: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Vol 21(5) Oct 1999, 701-708.
- Sumitani, S., Tanaka, T., Tayoshi, S. Y., Ota, K., Kameoka, N., Ueno, S.-i., et al. (2006). Activation of the Prefrontal Cortex during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test as Measured by Multichannel Near-Infrared Spectroscopy: Neuropsychobiology Vol 53(2) Apr 2006, 70-76.
- Sundberg, H., Egeland, J., Andreassen, T. H., & Stensli, O. (2006). Comparison of WISC-R- and WISC-III-scores in a clinical sample: Are WISC-III norms flawed, or are WISC-R norms outdated? : Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening Vol 43(5) May 2006, 476-481.
- Tallent, K. A., & Gooding, D. C. (1999). Working memory and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizotypic individuals: A replication and extension: Psychiatry Research Vol 89(3) Dec 1999, 161-170.
- Tan, Y., Zou, Y., Qu, Y., & Guo, X. (2002). Stability of commonly used measures in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Chinese Mental Health Journal Vol 16(12) Dec 2002, 831-833.
- Tate, R. L., Perdices, M., & Maggiotto, S. (1998). Stability of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the determination of reliability of change in scores: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 12(3) Aug 1998, 348-357.
- Thurston-Snoha, B.-J., & Lewine, R. R. J. (2007). Intact Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance: Implications for the role of executive function in schizophrenia: British Journal of Clinical Psychology Vol 46(3) Sep 2007, 361-369.
- Tien, A. Y., Schlaepfer, T. E., Orr, W., & Pearlson, G. D. (1998). SPECT brain flow changes with continuous ligand infusion during previously learned WCST performance: Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging Vol 82(1) Apr 1998, 47-52.
- Trenerry, M. R., & Jack, C. R. (1994). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance before and after temporal lobe lobectomy: Journal of Epilepsy Vol 7(4) 1994, 313-317.
- Tsuchiya, E., Oki, J., Yahara, N., & Fujieda, K. (2005). Computerized version of the Wisconsin card sorting test in children with high-functioning autistic disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Brain & Development Vol 27(3) Apr 2005, 233-236.
- Upton, D., & Corcoran, R. (1995). The role of the right temporal lobe in card sorting: A case study: Cortex Vol 31(2) Jun 1995, 405-409.
- Van den Broek, M. D., Bradshaw, C. M., & Szabadi, E. (1993). Utility of the Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in neuropsychological assessment: British Journal of Clinical Psychology Vol 32(3) Sep 1993, 333-343.
- van Gorp, W. G., Kalechstein, A. D., Moore, L. H., Hinkin, C. H., & et al. (1997). A clinical comparison of two forms of the Card Sorting Test: Clinical Neuropsychologist Vol 11(2) May 1997, 155-160.
- Vayalakkara, J., Devaraju-Backhaus, S., Bradley, J. D. D., Simco, E. R., & Golden, C. J. (2000). Abbreviated form of the Wisconsin Card Sort Test: International Journal of Neuroscience Vol 103(1-4) 2000, 131-137.
- Vollema, M. G., Geurtsen, G. J., & van Voorst, A. J. P. (1995). Durable improvements in Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenic patients: Schizophrenia Research Vol 16(3) Aug 1995, 209-215.
- Volz, H.-P., Gaser, C., Hager, F., Rzanny, R., Mentzel, H.-J., Kreitschmann-Andermahr, I., et al. (1997). Brain activation during cognitive stimulation with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test--A functional MRI study on healthy volunteers and schizophrenics: Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging Vol 75(3) Oct 1997, 145-157.
- Wang, L., Kakigi, R., & Hoshiyama, M. (2001). Neural activities during Wisconsin Card Sorting Test--MEG observation: Cognitive Brain Research Vol 12(1) Aug 2001, 19-31.
- Watson, T. D., Azizian, A., & Squires, N. K. (2006). Event-related potential correlates of extradimensional and intradimensional set-shifts in a modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Brain Research Vol 1092(1) May 2006, 138-151.
- Wiedl, K. H., & Schottke, H. (2002). The prediction of schizophrenic patients' proficiency in psycho-educational treatment by indicators of cognitive modifiability assessed with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Verhaltenstherapie Vol 12(2) Jun 2002, 90-96.
- Wiedl, K. H., Wienobst, J., Schottke, H. H., Green, M. F., & Nuechterlein, K. H. (2001). Attentional characteristics of schizophrenia patients differing in learning proficiency on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Schizophrenia Bulletin Vol 27(4) 2001, 687-696.
- Wiegner, S., & Donders, J. (1999). Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test after traumatic brain injury: Assessment Vol 6(2) Jun 1999, 179-187.
- Williams, M. C., Littell, R. R., Reinoso, C., & Greve, K. (1994). Effect of wavelength on performance of attention-disordered and normal children on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Neuropsychology Vol 8(2) Apr 1994, 187-186.
- Yalcin, K., & Karakas, S. (2007). Qualitative and quantitative effects of development in Wisconsin sorting test performance: Cocuk ve Genclik Ruh Sagligi Dergisi Vol 14(1) 2007, 24-32.
- Yao, W.-J., Pan, H.-A., Yang, Y.-K., Chou, Y.-H., Wang, S.-T., Yu, C.-Y., et al. (2008). Reduced frontal perfusion in depressed postmenopausal women: A SPECT study with WCST: Maturitas Vol 59(1) Jan 2008, 83-90.
- Young, D. A., & Freyslinger, M. G. (1995). Scaffolded instruction and the remediation of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test deficits in chronic schizophrenia: Schizophrenia Research Vol 16(3) Aug 1995, 199-207.
- Young, D. A., Zakzanis, K. K., Campbell, Z., Freyslinger, M. G., & Meichenbaum, D. H. (2002). Scaffolded instruction remediates Wisconsin Card Sorting Test deficits in schizophrenia: A comparison to other techniques: Neuropsychological Rehabilitation Vol 12(3) Jun 2002, 257-287.
- Zhening, L., Junxiong, Z., & Xiaozhang, C. (2003). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Continue Performance Test in Depression: Chinese Mental Health Journal Vol 17(10) Oct 2003, 690-692.
Additional material[]
Books[]
Papers[]
Dissertations[]
- Ashendorf, L. (2006). Age-related decline on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Beauvais, J. E. (1999). Normative data on a Tactile Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in sighted and visually impaired populations. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Brown, M. L. (1999). Smooth pursuit tracking, volumetric MRI, and Wisconsin Card Sorting performance in first-break, adolescent schizophrenia. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Caulfield, J. B. (1996). An exploration of error response time variables as a neuropsychological marker in boys with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Clarke, K. A. (1998). The relationship of race and ethnicity to performance in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test with male veterans. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Coffey, D. M. (2004). The influence of acculturation on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test by Mexican Americans. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Dasilva, D. N. (1996). An analysis of the factor structure of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in psychiatric inpatients. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Davis, R. D. (1993). Performance on a modified version of the Wisconsin card sorting test as a function of intelligence: Dissertation Abstracts International.
- Debeus, M. E. (1999). Electroencephalographic events during the wisconsin card sorting test. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Fortner, C. P. (1995). A comparison of neuropsychological functioning and social skills development for attention deficit hyperactivity disordered students. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Freyslinger, M. G. (1996). A comparison of instructional techniques in the remediation of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test deficits of chronic schizophrenic patients. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
- Godinez, D. (2008). The Wisconsin Card Sorting Task: An analysis of the construct validity, heritability, and association with the COMT Val158Met polymorphism. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Hammarlund, S. (2000). The role of cognitive dysfunction in psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Hildebrand, B. (1997). Neuropsychological predictors of academic success: Use of Controlled Oral Word Association Test, Trailmaking Test, and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test as measures of academic success among community college students. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Koren, D. (1996). Heterogeneity of neuropsychological performance in schizophrenia: Correlates of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Long, J. F. (2000). Learning transfer in patients with schizophrenia: Implications for generalization effects and remediation of wcst deficits. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Lunn, D. J. (2001). Utilization of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in the diagnostic discrimination of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and learning disorders in children. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
- Miller, A. D. (1998). Executive functions deficits in incarcerated adolescent sexual offenders as measured by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Pochyly, J. M. (1998). A comparison of two forms of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test as measures of executive functioning in school-aged children. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Potterat, E. G. (1998). Measuring the density of executive impairment in patients with schizophrenia: The effects of strategy verbalization on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Sanders, J. F. (2001). A comparison of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the Boston Naming Test with Native Americans. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Smith, H. B. (1995). The Milwaukee Card Sort Test as a neuropsychological measure of the presence or absence of brain damage in an inner city African American population. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Watson, T. D. (2006). Event-Related Potential correlates of cognitive operations in a modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Task. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Weatherly, G. E. (2002). Investigation of the factor structure of the wisconsin card sorting test using structural equation modeling. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
- Wolfe, P. R. (1993). A cognitive process approach to interpreting performance on the Booklet Category Test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Dissertation Abstracts International.
- Woodruff, G. R. (1997). Unique and shared components of executive function as measured by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the Halstead Categories Test. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
External links[]
- http://www3.parinc.com/products/product.aspx?Productid=WCST - Order the card-based version of the test
- http://www3.parinc.com/products/product.aspx?Productid=WCSTCV4 - Order the computerised version of the test
- A free implementation of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task is available as part of the PEBL Project.
This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors). |